The Coronavirus Pandemic: A Possible Model of the Direct and Indirect Impact of the Pandemic on Sleep Quality in Italians

Figures & data

Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of the Sample

	Total Sample (N= 2286)
Sex, n (%)
Man	580 (25.4)
Woman	1706 (74.6)
Age, n (%)
18–29 years old	1568 (68.6)
30–49 years old	485 (21.2)
>50 years old	233 (10.2)
Education, n (%)
Until middle School	97 (4.2)
High School	1135 (49.6)
Undergraduate
Health care	246 (10.8)
Other	658 (28.8)
Post-graduated
Health care	63 (2.8)
Other	87 (3.8)
Occupation, n (%)
Student	1071 (46.8)
Employed	687 (30.1)
Unemployed	278 (12.2)
Self-Employed	222 (9.7)
Retired	28 (1.22)
Territorial areas
North Italy	540 (23.6)
Centre Italy	571 (25.0)
South Italy	1175 (51.4)
Number of inhabitants in own city, n (%)
< 2.000	124 (5.4)
2.000–10.000	451 (19.7)
10.000–100.000	936 (50.0)
> 100.000	775 (33.9)
Quarantine experience, n (%)
Alone	2054 (89.9)
Others	232 (10.1)
Infection by the virus
Yes	9 (0.4)
No	1703 (74.5)
Do not know	574 (25.1)
Direct contact with people infected by COVID-19
Yes	40 (1.7)
No	1438 (63.0)
Do not know	808 (35.3)
Knowledge of people infected by COVID-19
Yes	549 (24.0)
No	1737 (76.0)
Knowledge of people in ICU for COVID-19
Yes	177 (7.7)
No	2109 (92.3)
Knowledge of people died for COVID-19
Yes	112 (4.9)
No	2174 (95.1)

Note: From: Forte et al 2020.¹⁰

Abbreviation: ICU, intensive care unit.

Table 2 The Direct Effect of COVID-19-Related Variables on Sleep Quality

	Estimate	Std.Err	z-value	p
Infected by COVID-19 -> Sleep Quality	−0.03	0.03	−0.065	0.51
Days spent at home in confinement -> Sleep Quality	0.01	0.003	3.89	0.001
Knowledge of people infected by COVID-19* -> Sleep Quality	0.05	0.02	2.09	0.03

Note: *Infected, in ICU or dead because of COVID-19.

Table 3 The Global Indirect Effect of COVID-19-Related Variables on Sleep Quality

	Estimate	Std. Err	z-value	p
Infected by COVID-19 -> Sleep Quality	0.09	0.2	3.24	0.001
Days spent at home in confinement -> Sleep Quality	0.005	0.002	2.23	0.02
Knowledge of people infected by COVID-19* -> Sleep Quality	0.05	0.02	2.63	0.01

Note: *Infected, in ICU or dead because of COVID-19.

Table 4 Indirect Effects of COVID-19-Related Variables on Sleep Quality

	Estimate	Std. Err	z-value	p
Affection by COVID-19 -> Psychological Well-Being -> Sleep Quality	0.06	0.01	3.30	0.001
Affection by COVID-19 -> COVID-PTSD -> Sleep Quality	0.02	0.01	1.91	0.04
Affection by COVID-19 -> State Anxiety -> Sleep Quality	−0.01	0.005	−1.90	0.06
Affection by COVID-19 -> Psychological Symptomatology-> Sleep Quality	0.02	0.007	2.28	0.02
Days spent at home -> Psychological Well-Being -> Sleep Quality	0.002	0.001	1.63	0.10
Days spent at home -> COVID-PTSD -> Sleep Quality	0.002	0.001	2.22	0.02
Days spent at home -> State Anxiety -> Sleep Quality	−0.001	0.002	−1.44	0.15
Days spent at home -> Psychological Symptomatology-> Sleep Quality	0.001	0.001	2.21	0.02
Knowledge of people infected by COVID-19* -> Psychological Well-Being -> Sleep Quality	0.02	0.01	1.89	0.04
Knowledge of people infected by COVID-19* -> COVID-PTSD -> Sleep Quality	0.03	0.01	3.26	0.001
Knowledge of people infected by COVID-19* -> State Anxiety -> Sleep Quality	−0.01	0.01	−1.89	0.06
Knowledge of people infected by COVID-19* -> Psychological Symptomatology-> Sleep Quality	0.01	0.01	1.63	0.10

Note: *Infected, in ICU or dead because of COVID-19.

Figure 1 The path diagram.

Karatzias T, Shevlin M, Murphy J, et al. Posttraumatic stress symptoms and associated comorbidity during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ireland: a population-based study. J Trauma Stress. 2020;33(4):365–370. doi:10.1002/jts.22565

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