Recent insights into sublethal effects of pesticides on insect respiratory physiology

Figures & data

Table 1 The effects of different pesticides on metabolic rate, respiratory patterns, water loss rate, muscle work, and longevity in insects and a species of ticks (Acaridae)

Organophosphate	Nerve poison	Chlorpyriphos	Periplaneta americana, adults	Decreases	DG > CG > Cont	Increases	Nerve excitation at first, lost afterward		4
Organophosphate	Nerve poison	Phosphine	P. americana, adults	Decreases	DG disappears	Decreases	Nerve excitation at first, lost afterward		76
Pyrethroid	Nerve poison	Alpha-cypermethrin	Bombus terrestris, foragers	0.04%: decreases	DG disappears	Increases in most individuals	Decreases	Death within 1–3 days	47
				0.02%: decreases	DG > CG	Increases in some individuals	Increases at first, restored on day 3	Normal death rate
			Platynus assimilis, adults	Increases	DG > Cont		Rare activity periods, vigorous pumping		77
Pyrethroid	Nerve poison	Deltamethrin	Tenebrio molitor, adults	Increases	DG > CG		Increases		75
Pyrethroid	Nerve poison	Permethrin	T. molitor, pupae	Increases	DG disappears		Abnormal coordination, hyperactivity	Lethal neurotoxicosis	74
Pyrethroid	Nerve poison	Permethrin	Amblyomma americanum, adult	Increases	DG very frequent	Major water loss			78
Synergist/acaricide/insecticide	Nerve excitation	amitraz		Increases	DG > Cont	No change
Mixture of previous two	Nerve poisonNerve excitation	Permethrin + amitraz		Increases, synergistic effect	DG > chaotic CO2 release, synergistic effect	Major water loss at first and another after 12 h		Synergistic effect on MR, respiratory patterns
Neonicotinoid	nAChRs	Imidacloprid	T. molitor, adults		DG with lower peak amplitude, DG > Cont		Ceases	Killed	75
Neonicotinoid	nAChRs	Imidacloprid	Apis mellifera, adults	Decreases			Muscular ventilation periods shorter	No change in behavior or longevity	73
Botanical	Nerve poison	Azadirachta indica	Pieris brassica, pupae		No change at first, DG disappears after 2–3 days	Lethal desiccation	Muscle work disappears, no response to stimuli, heartbeats present	Death within 5–21 days	80
			Hylobius abietis, adults	No change	DG > DG with higher frequency > Cont; DG not restored	Lethal desiccation	Irritation first, then irregular pumping movements	80% within 5 days, compared to 20% in untreated beetles	79
		Tanacetum roseum	P. brassicae, pupae	Increases slightly	DG > chaotic fluttering and Cont	Lethal desiccation	No movements, heartbeat pattern changes at fifth day		36
Botanical	Nerve poison	Heracleum sosnowskyi	T. molitor,pupaeGalleria mellonella,	Decreases	DG disappears		Inhibition of muscular activity, no reaction to stimuli		74
Nicotiana rustica	pupae
Artemisia absinthium		Decreases	DG restores after some time, DG . CG		Muscular hyperactivity
A. vulgaris
Botanical	Juvenile hormone analog	Ledum palustre	T. molitor, pupae	Increases	DG disappears	Muscular hyperactivity	Morphogenetic failures	74,81
			G. mellonella,pupae	Increases	DG disappears	Muscular hyperactivity	74
Bioinsecticide	Bacillus thuringiensis	Cry1C toxin	Spodoptera exigua Resistant and susceptible larvae/pupae	In larvae increases; in pupae increases at first, normalizes after 4 days	DG less frequent	More ventilation periods	Body mass lower	82,83
Clay	Physical barrier,affecting water loss	Kaolin	B. terrestris, foragers	No change	No change	Increases due to higher cuticular water loss	No change	Decreases at 28°C; no change at 18°C	48
Biofungicide	Fungus + kaolin	Gliocladium catenulatum	B. terrestris, foragers	No change	No change	Increases due to higher cuticular water loss	No change	No change	48
Bioinsecticide	Fungus + inert material	Beauveria bassiana	B. terrestris, foragers	No change	No change	No change	No change	Decreases	48

Abbreviations: DGE, discontinuous gas exchange; CGE, cyclic gas exchange; Cont, continuous gas exchange; h, hours; nAChRs, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors; MR, metabolic rate.