Prevalence and Associated Factors of Amblyopia Among School Age Children at Bahir Dar City, Northwest Ethiopia: A Community-Based Cross-Sectional Study

Figures & data

Table 1 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Study Participants at Bahir Dar City, Northwest Ethiopia, 2018 (n=601)

Variable	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Sex
Male	313	52.1
Female	288	47.9
Age (years)
6–9	108	18
10–12	160	26.6
13–15	169	28.1
15–18	164	27.3
Educational status
Not attending school	6	1
Kindergarten	9	1.5
Primary school (grades 1–8)	445	74
Secondary school (grades 9–12)	141	23.5
Ethnicity
Amhara	564	93.8
Tigre	15	2.5
Agaw	14	2.3
Oromo	6	6
Others*	2	0.3
Religion
Orthodox Christian	510	84.9
Muslim	67	11.1
Protestant	23	3.8
Catholic	1	0.2
Educational status of household head
Unable to read and write	21	3.5
Can read and write without formal education	104	17.3
Primary school	174	29
Secondary school	58	26
College and above	144	24

Notes: n = sample size; others * = Gurage and Benishangul Gumuz.

Table 2 Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Study Participants at Bahir Dar City, Northwest Ethiopia, 2018 (n=601)

Variable	Frequency	Percentage (%)
House ownership
Yes	449	74.7
No	152	25.3
Family monthly income (in Birr)
≤2000	140	23.3
2001–5000	283	47.1
5001–10,000	129	21.5
10,001–15,000	22	3.7
>15,000	27	4.5
Family size
1.2 Children	222	45.3
3.6 Children	240	43.9
Greater than 6 children	89	14.8
Parental employment
Neither employed	19	3.2
Only mother employed	23	3.8
Only father employed	79	13.1
Both employed	478	79.4
History of medical visit
Yes	317	52.7
No	284	47.3

Note: n = sample size.

Table 3 Gestation, Birth and Maternal Characteristics of the Study Participants at Bahir Dar City, Northwest Ethiopia, 2018 (n=601)

Variable	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Gestation period
<37 weeks	129	21.5
≥37 weeks	472	78.5
Mode of delivery
Normal vaginal delivery	414	68.9
Cesarean section/forceps	187	31.1
Twin
Yes	9	1.5
No	592	98.5
Admission to NICU
Yes	165	27.5
No	436	72.5
Child birth weight
<2500 grams	31	5.2
2500 3400 grams	511	85
>3400 grams	59	9.8
Exclusive breast feeding
Yes	492	81.9
No	109	18.1
History of medical visit
Yes	317	52.7
No	284	47.3
Maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy
Yes	35	5.8
No	566	94.2
Maternal systemic illness* during pregnancy
Yes	22	3.7
No	579	96.3

Notes: n = sample size; systemic illness* = diabetes mellitus and/or hypertension.

Table 4 Family-Related Amblyogenic Characteristics of the Study Participants at Bahir Dar City, Northwest Ethiopia, 2018 (n=601)

Variable	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Sibling with known visual problem
Yes	154	25.6
No	447	74.4
First-degree family member using spectacles
Yes	89	14.8
No	512	85.2
Family history of strabismus
Yes	13	2.2
No	592	97.8

Note: n = sample size.

Table 5 Clinical Characteristics of the Study Participants at Bahir Dar City, Northwest Ethiopia, 2018 (n=601)

Variables	Frequency	Percentage
SYSTEMIC CLINICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Child history of known systemic illness*
Yes	93	15.5
No	508	84.5
Child immunization history
Completed all	560	93.2
Not completed	41	6.8
OCULAR CLINICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Strabismus
Yes	19	3
No	583	97
History of past eye complaint
Yes	87	14.5
No	514	85.5
History of spectacle use
Yes	32	5.5
No	569	94.7
Previous/current history of visual deprivation
Yes	15	2.5
No	586	97.5
Anisometropia
Anisometropia <1D	25	4.2
Anisometropia ≥1D to <2D	29	4.8
Anisometropia ≥2D	22	3.6
No anisometropia	525	87.4
Presenting distance visual acuity of the better eye
Better than or equal to 6/18	551	91.7
Worse than ≤6/18 to ≥6/60	41	6.8
<6/60 to ≥3/60	6	1
<3/60	3	0.5
Degree of refractive error
Low degree/no refractive error	511	85
Moderate myopia	28	4.7
High myopia	25	4.2
Moderate hyperopia	20	3.3
High hyperopia	17	2.8

Notes: n = sample size; child history of known systemic illness = DM and/or hypertension and/or asthma and/or HIV.

Figure 1 Types of amblyopia among study participants at Bahir Dar city, northwest Ethiopia, 2018 (n=39).

Table 6 Factors Associated with Amblyopia Among the Study Participants at Bahir Dar City, Northwest Ethiopia, 2018 (n=601)

Variable	Amblyopia		COR (95% CI)	AOR (95% CI)
	Yes	No
Sex
Male	19	269	1.04 (0.54–1.98)
Female	20	293	1
Age category (years)
6–9	8	100	1
10–12	9	151	0.75 (0.28–2.00)
13–15	9	160	0.70 (0.26–1.88)
15–18	13	151	1.08 (0.43–2.69)
Deprivation (present or past)
Yes	6	14	7.12 (2.57–19.71)	8.34 (2.45–28.44) ***
No	33	548	1.00	1.00
Strabismus
Yes	4	25	2.45 (0.81–7.45)	6.21 (1.70–22.70) **
No	35	537	1.00	1.00
Anisometropia
No anisometropia	17	455	1.00
≤1D	5	52	2.57 (0.91–7.26)	4.12 (1.23–13.87)*
>1D	9	34	7.08 (2.94–17.08)	10.44 (3.57–30.56) ***
>2D	8	21	10.19 (3.95–26.23)	9.35 (2.86–30.60) ***
Gestational age
<37 weeks	4	58	0.99 (0.34–2.89)
≥37 weeks	35	504	1
Mode of delivery
Spontaneous vaginal	24	380	1.00
Cesarean section	15	182	1.35 (0.67–2.55)
NICU admission
Yes	23	142	4.25 (2.18–8.27)
No	16	420	1
Refractive error
No/low refractive error	20	488	1.00	1.00
Myopia	2	29	2.77 (0.99–7.73)
Hyperopia (+2.00D to +5.0D)	5	12	7.16 (2.40–21.36)	7.31 (1.93–27.79) **
Hyperopia (> +5.00DS)	9	22	15.65 (6.06–40.45)	21.77 (7.15–66.34) ***
Exclusive breast feeding for 6 months
Yes	31	461	1.00
No	8	101	1.18 (0.53–2.64)
Systemic illness during pregnancy
Yes	5	17	1.00
No	34	545	4.72 (1.64–13.55)
Presenting distance visual acuity
>6/18	10	485	1
6/18–6/60	13	56	11.26 (4.72–26.89)
<6/60	16	21	36.95 (14.98–91.15)
Family history of strabismus
Yes	4	13	4.83 (1.49–15.58)	7.95 (2.09–30.22) **
No	35	549	1	1
Past eye complaint
Yes	9	78	1.86 (0.86–4.07)
No	30	484	1

Notes: *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001; systemic illness = DM and/or hypertension; family history = first-degree family members. P values are presented for the multivariable binary logistic regression analysis.