The different functions and clinical significances of caveolin-1 in human adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma

Figures & data

Figure 1 Cav-1 plays an important role in tumor migration, invasion and metastasis by regulating the activity of Rho-GTPases, EMT and MMPs.

Notes: Rho-GTPases: the cooperation between Cav-1 and Rho-GTPase can promote metastasis by the elevated expression of α5-integrin and the enhanced activation of Src, Ras and Erk.⁴² Moreover, Cav-1 overexpression can increase the phosphorylation of RhoC GTPase by stimulating the activation of AKT1,⁴³ whereas the opposite result exists in pancreatic cancer.⁴⁴ EMT: Cav-1 overexpression promotes bladder cancer metastasis via inducing EMT by activating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, which upregulates Slug expression.¹⁴ The decreased expression of Cav-1 can also enhance cancer cell invasion and metastasis by the downregulation of E-cadherin, upregulation of β-catenin and enhancing GSK-3-independent-catenin-TCF/LEF-1 transactivation⁴⁷ or by stimulating EGFR, then promoting the activation of STAT3, resulting in contributing to the EMT.⁴⁶ MMPs: Cav-1 mediates tumor invasion and metastasis by negatively regulating the activity of MMP-2, MMP-9 and the expression of MT4-MMP^54,55 or by positively regulating the activity of MMP-3 and the expression of MMP2, MMP-9 and MT1-MMP.^45,50 The “+” represents the promotion and “−” represents the inhibition.
Abbreviations: Cav-1, caveolin-1; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; EMT, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition; GSK, glycogen synthase kinase; LEF, lymphoid enhancer factor; MMPs, matrix metalloproteinase; MT, membrane type; PI3K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; STAT3, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; TCF, T-cell factor.

Figure 2 The role of Cav-1 in apoptosis fails to reach a consensus.

Notes: Increased apoptosis: Cav-1 overexpression can promote cell apoptosis by downregulation of EGFR-MAPK signal pathway^6,9 or β-catenin-TCF/LEF-dependent transcription⁶⁰ and its downstream signal molecules survivin.⁶⁰ However, Cav-1 knockdown also can inhibit the expression of antiapoptotic proteins BCL-2 and BCL-xl. Simultaneously, Cav-1 can negatively regulate the activity of AKT, leading to the upregulation of BIM.⁶¹ Decreased apoptosis: Cav-1 inhibits anoikis by upregulation of IGF-IR expression and IGF-I-induced signaling via the PI3K/AKT pathway.⁶² Moreover, the elevated expression of Cav-1 can maintain phosphorylated AKT through scaffolding binding site interaction and inhibition of PP1 and PP2A.⁶³ Furthermore, Cav-1 overexpression also significantly reduces staurosporine-induced apoptosis by downregulation of the ceramide via inhibiting the activity of neutral sphingomyelinase, the decreased ceramide inhibits P13K/AKT pathway-induced cell apoptosis.⁶⁴ The “+” represents the promotion and “−” represents the inhibition.
Abbreviations: BCL, B-cell lymphoma; Cav-1, caveolin-1; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; EMT, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition; GSK, glycogen synthase kinase; IGF, insulin-like growth factor; IR, insulin receptor; LEF, lymphoid enhancer factor; MAPKs, mitogen-activated protein kinases; PI3K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; PP, protein phosphatase; TCF, T-cell factor.

Table 1 The different functions of Cav-1 in human adenocarcinoma

Organ	Tumor		Stromal
	Function	Prognosis	Function	Prognosis
Thyroid	The level of Cav-1 depends on the different subunits in thyroid cancer, whereas the results fail to reach an agreement.^Citation65^–^Citation68
Esophagus	Cav-1 plays a negative role in the pathogenesis of BAC.^Citation11,Citation69	The elevated expression of Cav-1 in a small subgroup of BAC patients was correlated with poor survival prognosis.^Citation11
Lung	Cav-1 serves as a tumor inhibitor in lung ADs,^Citation10,Citation70,Citation150 whereas the tumor- promoting function also has been observed.^Citation72	The higher expression Cav-1 correlated with poorer survival in lung ADs patients.^Citation71	Cav-1 expression in CAFs is closely related with T stage, lymphatic permeation, vascular invasion and pleural invasion.^Citation78	Cav-1 overexpression in CAFs predicts a poor outcome, but it cannot serve as an independent prognostic factor.^Citation78
Breast	The tumor-promoting function of Cav-1 in breast cancer has been found by many reports.^Citation43,Citation82,Citation156,Citation157 However, some studies insist that Cav-1 functions as a tumor inhibitor.^Citation79,Citation80	Cav-1 expression has no prognostic value in breast cancer.^Citation22,Citation89^–^Citation91	Cav-1 acts as a tumor suppressor in the stromal microenvironment of breast cancer.^Citation22,Citation24,Citation29,Citation30	The absence of stromal Cav-1 may serve as a poor independent prognostic maker in breast cancer.^Citation22,Citation24,Citation29,Citation30
Liver	The elevated Cav-1 expression contributes to HCC progression and metastasis via inhibiting autophagy,^Citation107 inducing EMT^Citation109 or triggering c-Met signal transduction.^Citation111	Cav-1 overexpression predicts a poor prognosis in HCC.^Citation49,Citation108
Stomach	Cav-1 can suppress gastric cancer tumorigenesis.^Citation46,Citation93 The opposite results also have been observed.^Citation94,Citation95	Cav-1 is associated with poor prognosis,^Citation94 good prognosis^Citation96 or no prognosis^Citation95 remains controversial.	Loss of stromal Cav-1 can promote GC development.^Citation97,Citation98	Loss of stromal Cav-1 can predict the poor prognosis in GC.^Citation97
Pancreas	Cav-1 acts as tumor inhibitor^Citation6,Citation99,Citation100 or tumor promotor,^Citation101,Citation103,Citation104 even with the both in pancreatic AD still remains controversial.^Citation44	Cav-1 has been regarded as an independent unfavorable prognostic factor in pancreatic ductal AD.^Citation101,Citation102	The stromal Cav-1 serves as a tumor suppressor in pancreatic cancer.^Citation105	Loss of stromal Cav-1 in pancreatic cancer can be a strong poor prognosis biomarker.^Citation105
Colon	The oncogenic function of Cav-1 was found in colon AD,^Citation114^–^Citation116 whereas Cav-1 may play a tumor-inhibiting role during the early stages.^Citation117
Kidney	Cav-1 can promote the progression and metastasis of renal cell carcinoma.^Citation118,Citation120,Citation121	Cav-1 may be capable of predicting a worse prognosis.^Citation118,Citation120
Prostate	The tumorigenic function of Cav-1 has been found in prostate cancer.^Citation63,Citation122,Citation124,Citation125	The increased expression of Cav-1 is associated with poor prognosis.^Citation31,Citation122	The stromal Cav-1 plays a tumor-inhibiting role in the progression of prostate cancer.^Citation127	Loss of stromal Cav-1 in prostate cancer heralds a worse prognosis.^Citation127,Citation128

Abbreviations: ADs, adenocarcinomas; CAFs, cancer-associated fibroblasts; Cav-1, caveolin-1; EMT, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition; GC, gastric cancer; HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma.

Table 2 The different functions of Cav-1 in human SCC

Organ	Tumor		Stromal
	Function	Prognosis	Function	Prognosis
Skin	Cav-1 serves as a tumor inhibitor in the progression of cutaneous SCC.^Citation129,Citation130
Oral	The tumor-promoting function^Citation131,Citation132 or tumor-inhibiting function,^Citation134 even the biphasic functions^Citation135 of Cav-1 in OSCC still remains controversial.	Cav-1 serves as a prognostic marker for poor prognosis in OSCC.^Citation131,Citation132	The stromal Cav-1 serves as a tumor suppressor in OSCC.^Citation136,Citation138
Tongue	Cav-1 may serve as an oncogene in the development of tongue SCC.^Citation19	Whether Cav-1 can predict the prognosis still need the extension of clinical studies.^Citation19	The stromal Cav-1 plays a tumor-promoting role in the progression of tongue SCC.^Citation33	The accumulation of Cav-1 in TME is associated with poor prognosis.^Citation33
Throat	Cav-1 plays a tumor-inhibiting role in larynges SCC via the negative regulation of the EGFR–MAPK signaling pathway,^Citation9 whereas the increased expression of Cav-1 means a worse DSS.^Citation141	Cav-1 cannot serve as an independent prognostic factor for DSS.^Citation141
Head and neck	Increased expression Cav-1 promotes tumor cell migration and metastasis, indicating the tumor-promoting function in the progression of HNSCC.^Citation17,Citation142,Citation143 However, Cav-1 may have the potential to suppress tumorigenesis.^Citation144,Citation145
Esophagus	Cav-1 expression is upregulated during ESCC carcinogenesis,^Citation4,Citation16,Citation146,Citation148 whereas Cav-1 may function as a tumor inhibitor in ESCC.^Citation69	The overexpression of Cav-1 correlates with poor prognosis in ESCC.^Citation4,Citation16	The decreased expression of Cav-1 may promote malignant progression and heralds worse outcome.^Citation23	The absence of stromal Cav-1 is closely related to the poor prognosis in ESCC.^Citation23
Lung	The tumor-promoting function has been observed in lung SCC.^Citation10,Citation70,Citation71	Cav-1 can predict a poor prognosis in lung SCC.^Citation70,Citation151
Bladder	Cav-1 can drive tumorigenesis in bladder SCC.^Citation152,Citation153
Uterine	Cav-1 may function as an oncogene in the development of cervical SCC,^Citation18 and Cav-1 plays a vital role in cervical SCC invasion and metastasis.^Citation155 However, the tumor-inhibiting role of Cav-1 also has been found.^Citation154		Further studies are needed to determine the role of stromal Cav-1, which acts as a suppressor or promoter in cervical SCC.^Citation18

Abbreviations: BAC, Barrett esophageal adenocarcinoma; Cav-1, caveolin-1; DSS, disease-specific survival; ESCC, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma; EGFR-MAPK, epidermal growth factor receptor-mitogen-activated protein kinase; HNSCC, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma; OSCC, oral squamous cell carcinoma; SCC, squamous cell carcinoma; TME, tumor microenvironment.

Table 3 The role of Cav-1 in different histological types of the same organ

Organ	Function
Esophagus	Cav-1 overexpression is associated with lymph node metastasis, pathologic stage and poor prognosis in ESCC, which have reported by many studies.^Citation4,Citation16,Citation23 However, Jin et al showed that both Cav-1 methylation frequency and NMV were significantly higher in EAC and ESCC than in corresponding normal esophagus.^Citation69 The loss of Cav-1 may contribute to the progression to Barrett adenocarcinoma of the esophagus.^Citation11 Taken together, Cav-1 plays a tumor-inhibiting role in EAC, whereas Cav-1 plays a tumor-promoting role of in ESCC
Lung	The significant difference of Cav-1 expression is found between lung SCC and lung ADs. More specifically, the expression of Cav-1 is usually low or lost in lung ADs,^Citation10,Citation70,Citation150 even its overexpression is correlated with the advanced pathologic stage and shorter survival rates in lung AD patients.^Citation71 Taken together, Cav-1 may serve as a suppressor in the early stage, while it shift its function in the later stage of lung adenocarcinoma patients. However, Cav-1 overexpression was observed in lung SCC.^Citation10,Citation70,Citation150 Moreover, the relationship between Cav-1 and clinicopathologic parameters is still controversial in adenocarcinoma and SCC.^Citation10,Citation70,Citation71,Citation151 Therefore, the function of Cav-1 in lung cancer is histotype dependent.
Bladder	Hypermethylation of the Cav-1 promoter was found in bladder SCC by comparison with ADs, non- neoplastic urothelium. However, IHC demonstrated that all the specimens exhibited a strong diffuse immunostaining in bladder SCC, suggesting that the aberrant methylation of Cav-1 promoter and abnormal protein expression of the Cav-1 are related to bladder SCC, whereas no expression of Cav-1 can be detected in the normal transitional cell epithelium and adenocarcinomas, supporting epigenetic control of Cav-1 gene is not involved in the histogenesis of adenocarcinomas.^Citation152,Citation153

Abbreviations: ADs, adenocarcinomas; Cav-1, caveolin-1; EAC, esophageal adenocarcinoma; ESCC, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma; NMV, normalized methylation value; SCC, squamous cell carcinoma.

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