Prevalence of Depressive Symptoms in Patients with Type 1 and 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Figures & data

Table 1 Sociodemographic, Clinical, Biochemical Characteristics of Patients with Type 1 Diabetes and Controls

Parameter	Patients with Type 1 Diabetes and Controls
	Female			Male
	Diabetics (n = 57)	Controls (n = 43)	p	Diabetics (n = 58)	Controls (n = 62)	p
Age (years)	31.5±8.9	27.7±6.8	ns	28.2±7.1	29.5±6.9	ns
BMI (kg/m^2)	23.7±3.8	21.4±1.3	<0.001	26.0±3.6	23.6±1.3	<0.001
Education: Vocational/Preuniversity/Higher vocational	13/24/20	10/20/13	ns	17/18/23	14/24/24	ns
Place of residence: Urban/Rural	37/20	30/13	ns	40/18	39/23	ns
Marital status: Single/In a relationship/Widower	18/39/0	14/28/1	not calculated	21/35/2	16/43/3	ns
Currently working/Not working	43/14	38/5	ns	48/10	55/7	ns
Smoking: Never/Past/Present	27/15/15	25/9/9	ns	15/19/24*	32/14/16	<0.05
Alcohol: Drinking/Not drinking	28/29	26/17	ns	39/19	38/24	ns
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)	126.8±13.4	120.3±2.4	<0.01	123.4±9.1	120.5±2.6	<0.05
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)	79.3±9.8	64.3±4.6	<0.001	78.4±10.7	62.4±3.8	<0.001
Comorbidities: Hypertension/Coronary artery disease/Heart failure	9/9/1	0/0/0		4/4/0	0/0/0
Drug: Oral antidiabetic/Insulin/antihipertensive/statins	26/57/9/0			11/58/4/3
Duration of diabetes (years)	3.88±7.11			6.53±14.18
Complications of diabetes: retinopathy, nephropathy polyneuropathy, diabetic foot	10/0/5/1			10/0/2/0
Glucose fasting (mg/dL)	121.4±23.1	84.7±3.7	<0.001	120.4±25.6	86.0±4.3	<0.001
HbA1c (%)	6.11±0.98			5.96±1.0

Notes: *Yates-corrected Chi-square test; the remaining p-values calculated using the Mann–Whitney U-test.

Abbreviations: p, statistical significance of differences; ns, non-significant.

Table 2 Sociodemographic, Clinical, Biochemical Characteristics of Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Controls

Parameter	Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Controls
	Female			Male
	Diabetics (n = 114)	Controls (n = 94)	p	Diabetics (n = 101)	Controls (n = 89)	p
Age (years)	51.1±9.7	50.2±5.9	<0.05	53.4±6.8	51.3±5.7	<0.01
BMI (kg/m^2)	28.8±5.4	21.5±1.4	<0.001	30.1±5.6	23.7±1.2	<0.001
Education: Vocational/Preuniversity//Higher vocational	70/34/10	31/33/30	<0.001^*	52/36/13	34/25/30	<0.01^*
Place of residence: Urban/Rural	10/104	31/63	<0.001^*	41/60	24/65	<0.05^*
Marital status: Single/In a relationship/Widower	5/109/0	10/73/11	<0.001**	16/83/2	14/66/9	ns**
Currently working/Not working	112/2	77/17	<0.001***	48/53	79/10	<0.001^*
Smoking: Never/Past/Present	72/21/21	48/20/26	ns^*	23/44/34	49/17/23	<0.001^*
Alcohol: Drinking/Not drinking	29/85	50/44	<0.001^*	48/53	67/22	<0.001^*
Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg)	131.2±14.3	121.6±4.4	<0.001	133.0±18.6	121.8±3.5	<0.001
Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg)	81.5±11.3	66.6±6.6	<0.001	83.2±13.3	64.4±4.9	<0.001
Comorbidities: Hypertension/Coronary artery disease/Heart failure	66/23/11	0/0/0		83/32/22	0/0/0
Drug: Oral antidiabetic/Insulin/antihipertensive/statins	114/43/64/43			101/57/80/54
Duration of diabetes (years)	8.93± 6.55			9.87±7.60
Complications of diabetes: retinopathy, nephropathy, polyneuropathy, diabetic foot	29/8/17/4			31/13/18/4
Glucose fasting (mg/dL)	121.4±23.1	84.7±3.7	<0.001	120.4±25.6	86.0±4.3	<0.001
HbA1c (%)	6.47±1.23			6.88±1.32

Notes: *Chi-square test; **Fischer’s exact test; ***Yates-corrected Chi-square test;  the remaining p-values calculated using the Mann–Whitney U-test.

Abbreviations: p, statistical significance of differences; ns, non-significant.

Table 3 Prevalence of Depression in Patients with Diabetes and Controls

Parameter	Patients with Type 1 Diabetes and Controls
	Female			Male
	Diabetics (n = 57)	Controls (n = 43)	p	Diabetics (n = 58)	Controls (n = 62)	p
BDI (score) (mean±SD)	8.2±8.1	2.8±4.4	<0.001	5.9±6.0	3.1±3.8	<0.001
Depression (BDI≥16) [n(%)]	10(17.5)	2(4.7)	<0.01	5(8.6)	1(1.6)	<0.01
Without depression (BDI<16) [n(%)]	47(82.5)	41(95.3)		53(91.4)	61(98.4)
Parameter	Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Controls
	Female			Male
	Diabetics (n = 114)	Controls (n = 94)	p	Diabetics (n = 101)	Controls (n = 89)	p
BDI (score) (mean±SD)	12.9±8.3	5.3±5.2	<0.001	9.9±9.5	2.6±3.7	<0.001
Depression (BDI≥16) [n(%)]	33(28.9)	4(4.3)	<0.001	20(19.8)	1(1.1)	<0.001
Without depression (BDI<16) [n(%)]	81(71.1)	90(95.7)		81(80.2)	88(98.9)

Abbreviations: BDI, Beck Depression Inventory; p, statistical significance of differences.

Table 4 Prevalence of Depressive Symptoms in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes and Controls

Element of Beck Depression Inventory	Score	Patients with Type 1 Diabetes and Controls
		Female			Male
		Diabetics (n = 57)	Controls (n = 43)	p	Diabetics (n = 58)	Controls (n = 62)	p
Sadness	0	37(64.9)	38(88.4)	<0.05	50(86.2)	53(85.5)	ns
	1–3	20(35.1)	5(11.6)		8(13.8)	9(14.5)
Pessimism	0	36(63.2)	36(83.7)	<0.05	40(69.0)	55(88.7)	<0.05
	1–3	21(36.8)	7(16.3)		18(31.0)	7(11.3)
Past failure	0	44(77.2)	39(90.7)	ns	47(81.0)	58(93.6)	ns
	1–3	13(22.8)	4(9.3)		11(19.0)	4(6.5)
Loss of pleasure	0	45(79.0)	38(88.4)	ns	50(86.2)	57(91.9)	ns
	1–3	12(21.0)	5(11.6)		8(13.8)	5(8.1)
Guilty feeling	0	39(68.4)	37(86.1)	ns	46(79.3)	56(90.3)	ns
	1–3	18(31.6)	6(13.9)		12(20.7)	6(9.7)
Punishment feeling	0	52(91.2)	40(93.0)	ns	53(91.4)	60(96.8)	ns
	1–3	5(8.8)	3(7.0)		5(8.6)	2(3.2)
Self-dislike	0	39(68.4)	37(86.1)	ns	47(81.0)	51(82.3)	ns
	1–3	18(31.6)	6(13.9)		11(19.0)	11(17.7)
Self-criticalness	0	41(71.9)	39(90.7)	ns	50(86.2)	59(95.2)	ns
	1–3	16(24.6)	4 (9.3)		8(13.8)	3(4.8)
Suicidal thoughts	0	54(94.7)	41(95.4)	ns	58 (48.33%)	62 (51.67%)	ns
	1–3	3(5.3)	2 (4.65%)		0(0)	0(0)
Crying	0	40(70.2)	36(83.7)	ns	52(89.7)	58(93.6)	ns
	1–3	17(29.8)	7(16.3)		6(10.3)	4(6.4)
Agitation	0	30(52.6)	34(79.1)	<0.05	40(69.0)	42(67.7)	ns
	1–3	27(47.4)	9(20.9)		18(21.0)	20(32.3)
Loss of interest	0	40 (70.2%)	42 (97.7)	<0.01	43 (74.1%)	53 (85.5)	ns
	1–3	17 (29.7)	1 (2.3)		15 (25.9)	9 (14.5)
Indecisiveness	0	36 (63.2)	39 (90.7)	<0.01	44 (75.9)	56 (90.3)	ns
	1–3	21 (36.8)	4 (9.3)		14 (24.1)	6 (9.7)
Worthlessness	0	37 (64.9)	38 (88.4)	<0.05	42 (72.4)	55 (88.7)	ns
	1–3	20 (26.3)	5 (21.6)		16 (27.6%)	7 (11.3)
Loss of energy	0	43 (75.4)	40 (93.0)	ns	53 (91.4)	62 (100)	<0.05
	1–3	14 (24.6)	3 (7.0)		5 (8.6)	0(0)
Changes in sleeping pattern	0	35 (61.4)	31 (72.1)	ns	35 (60.3)	46 (74.2)	ns
	1–3	22 (38.6)	12 (23.3)		23 (39.7)	16 (25.8)
Irritability	0	35 (61.4)	41 (95.4)	<0.01	43 (74.1)	58 (93.6)	<0.05
	1–3	22 (38.6)	2 (4.7)		15 (25.8)	4 (6.5)
Changes in appetite	0	32 (56.1)	31 (72.1)	ns	32 (55.2)	49 (79.0)	<0.05
	1–3	25 (43.9)	12 (27.9)		26 (44.8)	13 (21.0)
Concentration difficulty	0	35(61.4)	34(79.1)	ns	35(60.3)	49 (79.0)	ns
	1–3	22(38.6)	9(20.9)		23(39.7)	13(21.0)
Tiredness or fatigue	0	35(61.4)	41(95.3)	<0.001	39(67.2)	59(95.2)	<0.001
	1–3	22(38.6)	2(4.7)		19(32.8)	3(4.8)
Loss of interest in sex	0	39(68.4)	40(93.0)	<0.01	46(79.3)	52(83.9)	ns
	1–3	18(31.6)	3(7.0)		12(20.7)	10(16.1)

Notes: Data presented as numbers n(%).

Abbreviations: p, statistical significance of differences; ns, non-significant.

Table 5 Prevalence of Depressive Symptoms in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Controls

Element of Beck Depression Inventory	Score	Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Controls
		Female			Male
		Diabetics (n = 114)	Controls (n = 94)	p	Diabetics (n = 101)	Controls (n = 89)	p
Sadness	0	53(46.5)	68(72.3)	<0.001	61(60.4)	78(87.6)	<0.001
	1–3	61(53.5)	26(27.7)		40(39.6)	11(12.4)
Pessimism	0	37(32.5)	64(68.1)	<0.001	52(51.5)	76(85.4)	<0.001
	1–3	77(67.5)	30(31.9)		49(48.5)	13(14.6)
Past failure	0	72(63.2)	78(83.0)	<0.01	63(62.4)	81(91.0)	<0.001
	1–3	42(36.8)	16(17.0)		38(37.6)	8(9.0)
Loss of pleasure	0	65(57.0)	72(76.6)	<0.01	61(60.4)	82(92.1)	<0.001
	1–3	49(43.0)	22(23.4)		40(39.6)	7(7.9)
Guilty feeling	0	63(55.3)	66(70.2)	ns	69(68.3)	78(87.6)	<0.01
	1–3	51(44.7)	28(29.8)		32(31.7)	11(12.4)
Punishment feeling	0	95(83.3)	84 (89.4)	ns	88(87.1)	87(98.9)	<0.05
	1–3	19(16.7)	10(10.6)		13(12.9)	1(1.1)
Self-dislike	0	73(64.0)	68(72.3)	ns	64(63.4)	80(89.9)	<0.001
	1–3	41(36.0)	26(27.7)		37(36.6)	9(10.1)
Self-criticalness	0	81(71.1)	83(88.3)	<0.01	80(79.2)	78(87.6)	ns
	1–3	33(25.4)	11(11.7)		21(20.8)	11(12.4)
Suicidal thoughts	0	105(93.0)	92(97.9)	ns	95(94.1)	88(98.9)	ns
	1–3	7(7.0)	2 (2.1)		6 (5.9)	1(1.1)
Crying	0	72(63.2)	73(77.7)	<0.05	86(85.2)	85(95.5)	<0.05
	1–3	42(36.8)	21(21.3)		15(14.8)	4 (4.5)
Agitation	0	46(40.4)	73(77.7)	<0.001	57(56.4)	77(86.5)	<0.001
	1–3	68(59.6)	31(22.3)		44(43.6)	12(13.5)
Loss of interest	0	62 (54.4)	81 (86.2)	<0.001	67 (66.3)	84 (94.4)	<0.001
	1–3	52 (45.6)	13 (13.8)		34 (33.7)	5 (4.5)
Indecisiveness	0	50 (43.9)	77 (81.9)	<0.001	67 (66.3)	81 (91.0)	<0.001
	1–3	64 (56.1)	17 (18.1)		34 (33.7)	8 (9.0)
Worthlessness	0	70 (61.4)	70 (74.5)	ns	68 (67.3)	78 (87.6)	<0.01
	1–3	44 (38.6)	24 (25.5)		33 (32.7)	11 (12.4)
Loss of energy	0	64 (56.1)	87 (92.6)	<0.001	61 (60.4)	86 (96.6)	<0.001
	1–3	50 (43.9)	7 (7.5)		40 (39.6)	3 (3.4)
Changes in sleeping pattern	0	25 (21.9)	55 (58.5)	<0.001	41 (40.6)	73 (82.0)	<0.001
	1–3	89 (88.1)	39 (41.5)		60 (59.4)	16 (17.9)
Irritability	0	37 (32.5)	75 (79.8)	<0.001	35 (34.6)	84 (94.4)	<0.001
	1–3	77 (67.5)	19 (20.2)		66 (65.4)	5 (5.6)
Changes in appetite	0	62 (54.4)	67 (71.3)	<0.05	69 (68.3)	74 (83.2)	<0.05
	1–3	52 (45.6)	27 (28.7)		32 (31.7)	15 (16.9)
Concentration difficulty	0	72(63.2)	67(71.3)	ns	78(77.2)	66(74.1)	ns
	1–3	42(36.8)	27(28.7)		21(22.8)	23(25.9)
Tiredness or fatigue	0	52(45.6)	86(91.5)	<0.001	56(55.5)	88(98.9)	<0.001
	1–3	62(54.4)	8(8.5)		45(44.5)	1(1.1)
Loss of interest in sex	0	34(29.8)	79(84.0)	<0.001	58(57.4)	80(89.9)	<0.001
	1–3	80(70.2)	15(16.0)		43(42.6)	9(10.1)

Notes: Data presented as numbers n(%).

Abbreviations: p, statistical significance of differences; ns, non-significant.

Table 6 Results from the Logistic Regression Analysis of Values of Beck Depression Inventory in Diabetics Depending on the Presence of Independent Variables

Parameter	Patients with Type 1 Diabetes
	Rating	Standard Error	Wald χ^2		p	Odds Ratio (OR)	95% CI for OR
Intercept term	−7.32	3.12	5.51		0.0189	0.0007	1.3*10^−6–0.32
Sex	−0.25	0.51	0.26		0.6092	0.77	0.28–2.11
Age	0.09	0.04	4.99		0.0255	1.09	1.01–1.18
BMI	−0.21	0.38	0.29		0.5934	0.81	0.38–1.75
Duration of diabetes	−0.08	0.05	2.82		0.0931	0.92	0.84–1.01
HbA1c level	0.71	0.28	6.20		0.0128	2.03	1.15–3.56
Diabetic complications	1.22	0.58	4.42		0.0356	3.37	1.07–10.61
MAP	0.004	0.03	0.02		0.8807	1.00	0.95–1.06
Parameter	Patients with Type 2 Diabetes
	Rating	Standard Error	Wald χ^2	p		Odds Ratio (OR)	95% CI for OR
Intercept term	−5.52	1.92	8.29	0.0040		0.004	0.92*10^4–0.18
Sex	1.09	032	11.82	0.0006		2.97	1.59–5.55
Age	0.04	0.02	4.58	0.0324		1.04	1.00–1.08
BMI	−0.03	0.03	0.80	0.3698		0.97	0.92–1.03
Duration of diabetes	0.01	0.02	0.39	0.5303		1.01	0.97–1.06
HbA1c level	0.36	0.14	6.58	0.0103		1.44	1.09–1.90
Diabetic complications	0.76	0.32	5.66	0.0174		2.14	1.14–4.03
MAP	0.01	0.02	0.24	0.6278		1.01	0.98–1.04

Abbreviations: p, statistical significance of differences; ns, non-significant; BMI, body mass index; HbA1c, glycated haemoglobin; MAP, mean arterial pressure; CI, confidence interval.

Figure 1 Risk analysis for prevalence of depressive symptoms in T1DM and T2DM (logarithmic scale).

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; HbA1c, glycated haemoglobin; MAP, mean arterial pressure.