The association between cognitive function and objective adherence to dietary sodium guidelines in patients with heart failure

Figures & data

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of full sample (N=339)

Study variable	Participants without two adequate urine samples (n=159)	Participants with two adequate urine samples (n=180)	P-value
Average sodium intake (mg), mean (SD)	––––a	3,152.34 (1,175.35)	––––a
NYHA, n (%)
Class I	18 (11.32)	17 (9.44)
Class II	35 (22.01)	47 (26.11)
Class III	97 (61.01)	107 (59.44)
Class IV	9 (5.66)	9 (5.00)	0.807
Qualifying ejection fraction	30.00 (8.29)	29.09 (8.50)	0.320
Age, mean (SD)	69.14 (10.29)	68.72 (8.92)	0.690
Sex, n (%)
Male	96 (60.38)	111 (61.67)
Female	63 (39.62)	69 (38.33)	0.808
Minority status, n (%)
White	111 (69.81)	134 (74.44)
Non-white	48 (30.19)	46 (25.56)	0.342
Education, n (%)
8th grade or less	5 (3.14)	4 (2.22)
9th–11th grade	19 (11.95)	12 (6.67)
High school	49 (30.82)	45 (25.00)
Technical or trade school	15 (9.43)	18 (10.00)
Some college	40 (25.16)	55 (30.56)
Bachelor’s degree	17 (10.69)	29 (16.11)
Master’s degree	14 (8.81)	17 (9.44)	0.355
SES, mean (SD)	−0.14 (4.74)	0.22 (4.07)	0.461
Impaired health literacy, n (%)
No	75 (47.47)	99 (55.62)
Yes	83 (52.53)	79 (44.38)	0.136
Someone else prepares food, n (%)
No	93 (58.49)	94 (52.22)
Yes	66 (41.51)	86 (47.78)	0.247
Someone else brings food, n (%)
No	39 (24.53)	36 (20.00)
Yes	120 (75.47)	144 (80.00)	0.316
Can correctly recall the sodium
Recommendation, n (%)
No	130 (81.76)	131 (73.60)
Yes	29 (18.24)	47 (26.40)	0.073
BMI, mean (SD)	29.93 (7.02)	30.10 (6.40)	0.815
Comorbidity, mean (SD)	3.37 (1.61)	3.33 (1.88)	0.821
No of past hospitalizations for HF, mean (SD)	2.19 (2.05)	2.02 (1.96)	0.442
Depression, mean (SD)	4.69 (5.17)	4.26 (4.44)	0.417
Anxiety, mean (SD)	13.19 (5.70)	12.21 (4.58)	0.083
Social support, mean (SD)	68.61 (13.87)	69.64 (14.06)	0.501
Cognitive domains, mean (SD)
Attention	43.54 (7.47)	45.22 (7.44)	0.044*
Memory	47.21 (8.25)	48.11 (7.53)	0.298
Executive function	45.06 (8.23)	46.75 (7.87)	0.064
Global cognition	90.92 (7.04)	92.71 (6.15)	0.014*

Notes:

a Value not indicated due to invalid urine collection.

* P<0.05.

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; HF, heart failure; NYHA, New York Heart Association; SES, socioeconomic status; SD, standard deviation.

Table 2 Simple linear regression of factors predicting average sodium excretion (mg) (N=180)

Factors	b (SD)	P-value
NYHA	−92.12 (120.60)	0.446
Age	−10.18 (9.85)	0.303
Female	−817.04 (170.00)	<0.001*
Non-white	−343.67 (199.76)	0.087
Education	46.65 (57.77)	0.421
SES	60.62 (21.44)	0.005*
Impaired health literacy	−95.92 (178.32)	0.591
Someone else prepares food	−370.27 (173.67)	0.034*
Someone else brings food	58.38 (219.58)	0.791
Can correctly recall the sodium
Recommendation	−400.81 (199.15)	0.046*
BMI	35.49 (13.57)	0.010*
Comorbidity	41.36 (46.72)	0.377
No of past hospitalizations for HF	−17.36 (44.27)	0.695
Depression	4.70 (19.84)	0.813
Anxiety	9.94 (19.34)	0.608
Social support	−6.73 (6.24)	0.282
Cognitive domains
Attention	−1.92 (12.13)	0.875
Memory	−4.53 (11.72)	0.700
Executive function	8.29 (11.62)	0.477
Global cognition	−7.83 (14.47)	0.589

Notes: Each factor above was entered into a separate regression model predicting average sodium excretion.

* P<0.05.

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; HF, heart failure; NYHA, New York Heart Association; SES, socioeconomic status; SD, standard deviation; b, unstandardized regression coefficient.

Table 3 Adjusted linear regressions of cognition predicting average sodium excretion

Factors	Attention		Executive function		Memory		Global cognition
	b (SD)	P-value	b (SD)	P-value	b (SD)	P-value	b (SD)	P-value
Female	−821.06 (187.09)	<0.001*	−881.22 (188.50)	<0.001*	−867.96 (196.47)	<0.001*	−795.13 (184.41)	<0.001*
Non-white	1.38 (214.30)	0.994	37.43 (213.28)	0.861	13.25 (203.62)	0.948	−26.78 (205.04)	0.896
SES	59.13 (22.78)	0.010*	54.67 (22.98)	0.019*	57.98 (22.16)	0.010*	61.18 (22.47)	0.007*
Someone else prepares food	−6.29 (177.98)	0.972	−18.21 (179.43)	0.919	−51.35 (174.94)	0.770	−15.94 (175.44)	0.928
Correctly recalled sodium recommendation	−435.44 (192.11)	0.025*	−459.58 (194.44)	0.019*	−448.40 (184.69)	0.016^vd	−439.10 (187.66)	0.021*
BMI	44.73 (13.71)	0.001*	42.89 (13.60)	0.002*	41.86 (13.22)	0.002*	41.91 (13.15)	0.002*
Cognition	2.90 (12.09)	0.811	12.99 (11.58)	0.264	15.23 (11.97)	0.205	−3.35 (14.71)	0.820
R^2 (adjusted R^2)	0.22 (0.20)	<0.001*	0.24 (0.20)	<0.001*	0.23 (0.19)	<0.001*	0.22 (0.19)	<0.001*

Notes: All of the above factors were entered simultaneously into single regression models predicting average sodium excretion; a separate simultaneous model was used for each cognitive domain.

* P<0.05.

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; SES, socioeconomic status; SD, standard deviation; b, unstandardized regression coefficient; R, multiple correlation coefficient.