Depression, Perceived Risk of COVID-19, Loneliness, and Perceived Social Support from Friends Among University Students in Poland, UK, and India

Figures & data

Table 1 Means (M), Standard Deviations (SD), and Correlation of the Variables

		M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
1	Gender^a	-	-	1
2	Age^b	1.14	0.35	−0.04	1
3	Depression (CES-D)	24.01	13.03	0.21**	−0.14**	1
4	Risk perceptions of COVID-19	4.79	1.26	0.06	0.01	0.16**	1
5	Loneliness (DJGLS)	20.88	8.65	0.05	−0.03	0.58**	0.05	1
6	Emotional Loneliness (DJGLS)	13.16	5.56	0.08*	−0.05	0.57**	0.10**	0.91**	1
7	Social Loneliness (DJGLS)	7.72	4.31	−0.02	−0.00	0.43**	−0.03	0.84**	0.53**	1
8	Perceived Social Support	60.75	14.63	0.06	−0.00	−0.40**	0.03	−0.65**	−0.49**	−0.67**	1
9	Perceived Social Support from Family	20.02	6.35	−0.07	−0.00	−0.41**	0.02	−0.45**	−0.37**	−0.44**	0.75**	1
10	Perceived Social Support from Friends	19.63	5.13	0.08*	−0.05	−0.30**	0.02	−0.64**	−0.47**	−0.67**	0.79**	0.37**	1
11	Perceived Social Support from Sign. Person	21.10	6.85	0.14**	0.03	−0.25**	0.03	−0.50**	−0.37**	−0.51**	0.85**	0.40**	0.59**

Notes: ^a1- Male; 2- Female^{; b}1-18-24 years old; 2–25 years and older; *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.

Table 2 Prevalence and Severity of Depression Symptoms by Country

Depression Criteria (CES-D)	Country
	All (N = 732)		Poland (N = 335)		UK (N = 198)		India (N = 199)
	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%
No depression	229	31.3	93	27.8	42	21.2	94	47.3
Mild to moderate depression	125	17.1	46	13.7	32	16.2	47	23.6
Major depression	378	51.6	196	58.5	124	62.6	58	29.1
Severity of Depression symptoms (CES-D)	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
	24.01	13.03	25.48^a	13.42	27.39^a	12.89	18.18	10.44

Note: ^aM, significantly different from the two other countries (p < 0.05) based on ANOVA, F-test, post hoc Bonferroni effects.

Table 3 Hierarchical Regression Analyses for All Participants

Model		All (N=732)			Poland (N = 335)			UK (N = 198)			India (N = 199)
		β	LL	UL	β	LL	UL	β	LL	UL	β	LL	UL
1	Step 1
	Gender^a	0.22***	4.23	8.24	0.08	−0.98	6.57	0.10	−1.242	8.03	0.17*	0.73	6.73
	Age	−0.14***	−6.56	−2.26	−0.07	−6.86	1.61	−0.36***	−11.08	−5.21	−0.03	−5.14	3.20
2	Step 2
	Gender	0.15***	2.52	5.79	0.10*	0.47	6.27	0.12*	0.54	8.28	0.05	−1.65	3.70
	Age	−0.10***	−4.63	−1.19	−0.06	−5.85	0.71	−0.21***	−7.31	−2.18	−0.04	−4.61	2.52
	Risk perceptions of COVID-19	0.13***	0.74	1.90	0.102*	0.190	1.85	0.15**	0.40	2.91	0.25	1.22	3.56
	Social Loneliness	0.47***	0.88	1.15	0.57***	0.97	1.46	0.32***	0.47	1.02	0.26***	0.30	0.85
	Emot. Loneliness	0.21***	0.38	0.69	0.10	−0.04	0.62	0.31***	0.54	1.14	0.32***	0.404	0.93
3	Step 3
	Gender	0.13***	2.19	5.44	0.08*	−0.02	5.82	0.12*	0.53	8.24	0.06	−1.43	3.89
	Age	−0.10***	−4.76	−1.37	−0.07	−6.05	0.41	−0.21***	−7.47	−2.27	−0.02	−4.257	2.87
	Risk perceptions of COVID-19	0.13***	0.818	1.95	0.10*	0.21	1.84	0.13*	0.25	2.76	0.27***	1.34	3.68
	Social Loneliness	0.42***	0.77	1.05	0.52***	0.85	1.35	0.32***	0.46	1.00	0.22***	0.19	0.77
	Emot. Loneliness	0.18***	0.26	0.64	0.07	−0.21	0.70	0.24***	0.30	1.01	0.26***	0.24	0.85
	PSS Family	−0.19***	−0.52	−0.26	−0.19***	−0.58	−0.19	−0.11	−0.48	0.026	−0.20**	−0.68	−0.13
	PSS Friends	0.01	−0.18	0.23	0.03	−0.26	0.38	−0.01	−0.47	0.36	−0.01	−0.49	0.43
	PSS Sign. Other	0.02	−0.10	0.17	0.03	−0.16	0.27	−0.03	−0.30	0.17	0.02	−0.23	0.30
	R^2 / R^2 adjusted	0.45/0.44***			0.45/0.44***			0.44/0.42***			0.34/0.31***

Notes: ^a1-Male; 2-Female; *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001.

Abbreviations: β, Standardized Regression Coefficient; LL, Lower Limit and UL, Upper Limit of the 95% Confidential Interval; R², total variance, R² adjusted, Adjusted Variance.

Figure 1 Depression structural equation model for the total sample (India, Poland and the United Kingdom).

Notes: ^A(1 = 18–24; 2 = 25 and older); Fitting of the model: RMSEA = 0.04; χ2 = 2.24, df = 1; CFI = 0.99; AIC = 30.23.

Figure 2 Depression structural equation model for the Polish sample.

Notes: ^A(1 = 18–24; 2 = 25 and older); Fitting of the model: RMSEA = 0.00; χ2 = 2.24 df = 1; CFI = 1.00; AIC = 28.00.

Figure 3 Depression structural equation model for the United Kingdom sample.

Notes: ^A(1 = 18–24; 2 = 25 and older); Fitting of the model: RMSEA = 0.21; χ²=10.09, df = 1; CFI = 0.93; AIC = 38.09.

Figure 4 Depression structural equation model for the Indian sample.

Notes: ^A(1= 18–24; 2=25 and older); Fitting of the model: RMSEA = 0.07; χ2 = 1.99; CFI = 0.99; AIC = 29.99.