Assessing Anxiety and Depression Among Students Post-COVID-19: Exploring Associating Factors

Figures & data

Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of the Study Participants (n = 1241)

Parameter	n (%)	P-value Comparing Males (n = 494) to Females (n = 747)*
Living place
Amman (the capital)	979 (78.9)
Other cities	262 (21.1)	0.063
Living condition
Rural areas	107 (8.6)
Urban areas	1134 (91.4)	0.162
Marital Status
Single	1178 (94.9)
Other (single, divorced, and widowed)	63 (5.1)	0.005
Smoking status
Smoker	303 (24.4)
Non-smoker	938 (75.6)	≤ 0.001
Do you have a chronic disease?
Yes	69 (5.6)
No	1172 (94.4)	0.407
Do you take any medication?
Yes	121 (9.8)
No	1120 (90.2)	0.006
How many cups of coffee (with caffeine) do you drink per day?
None	483 (38.9)
Less than 2 cups	477 (38.4)
2–4 cups	241 (19.4)	0.347
More than 4 cups	40 (3.2)
Do you have a family member diagnosed with anxiety and/or depression?
Yes	217 (17.5)
No	1024 (82.5)	0.171
Type of university
Public university	452 (36.4)
Private university	789 (63.5)	≤ 0.001
Academic year
3rd year or less	879 (70.8)
4th year or above	362 (29.2)	0.205

Notes: *Chi square test. P-values in bold are significant at 0.05 significance level.

Table 2 Assessment of Students’ Anxiety (n = 1241) Using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS)

Statement	n (%)	P-value Comparing Males (n = 494) to Females (n = 747)*
I feel tense or “wound up”
Most of the time	282 (22.7)	0.162
A lot of the time	528 (42.5)
From time to time, occasionally	339 (27.3)
Not at all	92 (7.5)
I get a sort of frightened feeling as if something awful is about to happen
Very definitely and quite badly	239 (19.2)	0.070
Yes, but not too badly	436 (35.1)
A little, but it does not worry me	369 (29.7)
Not at all	197 (16.0)
Worrying thoughts go through my mind
A great deal of the time	351 (28.3)	0.126
A lot of the time	464 (37.4)
From time to time, but not too often	293 (23.6)
Only occasionally	133 (10.7)
I can sit at ease and feel relaxed
Definitely	434 (34.9)	0.042
Usually	535 (43.2)
Not often	230 (18.5)
Not at all	42 (3.4)
I get a sort of frightened feeling like ‘butterflies’ in the stomach
Not at all	214 (17.3)
Occasionally	426 (34.3)	0.223
Quite often	433 (34.9)
Very often	168 (13.5)
I feel restless as I have to be on the move
Very much indeed	267 (21.5)	≤ 0.001
Quite a lot	391 (31.5)
Not very much	318 (25.6)
Not at all	265 (21.4)
I get sudden feelings of panic
Very often indeed	135 (10.9)	≤ 0.001
Quite often	267 (21.5)
Not very often	356 (28.7)
Not at all	483 (38.9)

Notes: *Chi square test. P-values in bold are significant at 0.05 significance level. HADS copyright © R.P. Snaith and A.S. Zigmond, 1983, 1992, 1994. Record form items originally published in Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 67, 361–70, copyright © Munksgaard International Publishers Ltd, Copenhagen, 1983. Published by GL Assessment Limited, 1st Floor Vantage London, Great West Road, London TW8 9AG, UK. All rights reserved. GL Assessment is part of the GL Education Group.^29,50–52

Table 3 Assessment of Students’ Depression (n = 1241) Using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS)

Statement	n (%)	P-value Comparing Males (n = 494) to Females (n = 747)*
I still enjoy the things I used to enjoy
Definitely as much	429 (34.6)	≤ 0.001
Not quite so much	457 (36.8)
Only a little	266 (21.4)
Hardly at all	89 (7.2)
I can laugh and see the funny side of things
As much as I always could	657 (52.9)	≤ 0.001
Not quite so much now	407 (32.8)
Definitely not so much now	137 (11.1)
Not at all	40 (3.2)
I feel cheerful
Not at all	45 (3.6)	0.003
Not often	176 (14.2)
Sometimes	580 (46.7)
Most of the time	440 (35.5)
I feel as if I am slowed down
Nearly all the time	465 (37.5)	≤ 0.001
Very often	520 (41.9)
Sometimes	196 (15.8)
Not at all	60 (4.8)
I have lost interest in my appearance
Definitely	157 (12.7)	0.011
I do not take as much care as I should	309 (24.8)
I may not take quite as much care	326 (26.3)
I take just as much care as ever	449 (36.2)
I look forward with enjoyment to things
As much as I ever did	393 (31.7)	0.001
Rather less than I used to	575 (46.3)
Definitely less than I used to	207 (16.7)
Hardly at all	66 (5.3)
I can enjoy a good book or radio or Television program
Often	505 (40.7)	≤ 0.001
Sometimes	408 (32.9)
Not often	206 (16.6)
Very seldom	122 (9.8)

Notes: *Chi square test. P-values in bold are significant at 0.05 significance level. HADS copyright © R.P. Snaith and A.S. Zigmond, 1983, 1992, 1994. Record form items originally published in Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 67, 361–70, copyright © Munksgaard International Publishers Ltd, Copenhagen, 1983. Published by GL Assessment Limited, 1st Floor Vantage London, Great West Road, London TW8 9AG, UK. All rights reserved. GL Assessment is part of the GL Education Group.^29,50–52

Figure 1 Interpretation of students’ (n = 1241) proportions of those with normal vs borderline abnormal vs abnormal symptoms using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS).

Figure 2 Comparing the anxiety and depression mean scores of male (n = 494, 39.8%) and female (n= 747, 60.2%) participant students.

Table 4 Assessment of Factors Affecting Anxiety Scores Among the Study Participants (n = 1241)

Parameter	Anxiety Score
	Beta	P-value^#	Beta	P-value^$,*
Age	−0.011	0.098^^	−0.014	0.036
Gender
Male	Reference		0.116	0.017
Female	0.132	0.007^^
Living place
Amman (the capital)	Reference
Other cities	0.013	0.829	–	–
Living condition
Urban areas	Reference
Rural areas	0.156	0.069^^	0.160	0.060
Marital status
Married	Reference
Other (single, divorced, widowed)	0.099	0.434	–	–
Smoking status
Non-smoker	Reference
Smoker	−0.044	0.425	–	–
Chronic Disease
No	Reference
Yes	0.054	0.606	–	–
Taking medication
No	Reference
Yes	0.239	0.003^^	0.222	0.006
Cups of coffee (with caffeine) per day
Less than two cups	Reference
Two cups or more	0.103	0.069^^	0.111	0.049
Having a family member diagnosed with anxiety or depression
No	Reference
Yes	0.123	0.049^^	1.595	0.111
Type of university
Private university	Reference
Public university	−0.018	0.721	–	–
Academic year
3rd year or less	Reference
4th year or above	0.057	0.279	–	–

Notes: ^#Using simple linear regression. ^$Using multiple linear regression. ^{^}Eligible for entry in multiple linear regression (significant at 0.25 significance level). *P-values in bold are significant at 0.05 significance level.

Table 5 Assessment of Factors Affecting Depression Scores Among the Study Participants (n = 1241)

Parameter	Depression Score
	Beta	P-value^#	Beta	P-value^$,*
Age	−0.009	0.178^^	−0.013	0.038
Gender
Male	Reference
Female	−0.025	0.608	–	–
Living place
Amman (the capital)	Reference
Other cities	0.030	0.603	–	–
Living condition
Urban areas	Reference
Rural areas	0.122	0.151^^	0.150	0.069
Marital status
Married	Reference
Other (single, divorced, widowed)	0.028	0.826	–	–
Smoking status
Non-smoker	Reference
Smoker	−0.172	0.002^^	−0.123	0.025
Chronic Disease
No	Reference
Yes	0.130	0.208^^	−0.021	0.851
Taking medication
No	Reference
Yes	0.288	≤ 0.001^^	0.267	0.002
Cups of coffee (with caffeine) per day
Less than two cups	Reference
Two cups or more	0.220	≤ 0.001^^	0.188	0.001
Having a family member diagnosed with anxiety or depression
No	Reference
Yes	0.346	≤ 0.001^^	0.316	≤ 0.001
Type of university
Private university	Reference
Public university	−0.010	0.833	–	–
Academic year
3rd year or less	Reference
4th year or above	−0.018	0.730	–	–

Notes: ^#Using simple linear regression. ^$Using multiple linear regression. ^{^}Eligible for entry in multiple linear regression (significant at 0.25 significance level). *P-values in bold are significant at 0.05 significance level.

Zigmond AS, Snaith RP. The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1983;67(6):361–370. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar