Unraveling the Dynamic Nexus Between Trade Liberalization, Energy Consumption, CO₂ Emissions, and Health Expenditure in Southeast Asian Countries

Figures & data

Figure 1 Trade liberalization in Southeast Asian Countries (1991–2018).

Figure 2 Energy consumption in Southeast Asian Countries (1990–2018).

Figure 3 CO2 emissions in Southeast Asian Countries.

Figure 4 Health expenditures in Southeast Asian Countries.

Table 1 Variables Definition and Measurement

Variables	Notation	Definition	Source
Energy Consumption	Energy	Energy use (kg of oil equivalent per capita)	WDI
CO2 Emission	CO2	Carbon dioxide emissions (metric tons per capita)	WDI
Trade liberalization	T	Trade liberalization (% of GDP)	WDI
Health expenditures	HE	Current health expenditure per capita (current US$)	WDI

Abbreviation: GDP, gross domestic product.

Table 2 Correlation Matrix

Variables	HE	T	CO2	Energy
HE	1
T	0.276	1
CO2	0.498	0.349	1
Energy	0.210	0.365	0.360	1

Table 3 The Results of Hypotheses Testing Through Path Analysis

Hypothesis Statements for Path Analysis	Estimates	P-value	Result of Hypothesis
H1: Trade % of GDP has a significant association with energy consumption	15.447	0.000	Supported
H2: Energy consumption has a significant relationship with CO2 emission	0.002	0.000	Supported
H3: Trade % of GDP spending has a significant relationship Health expenditure	1.258	0.000	Supported
H4: Energy consumption has a significant association with Health Expenditure	0.144	0.000	Supported
H5: CO2 emission has a significant effect on health expenditure	15.563	0.000	Supported

Figure 5 Research model and standardized factor loadings.

Table 4 Standardized Path Coefficients Between Variables

			Regression Weight	S.E.	C.R.	P
Energy	←	T	0.893	0.521	29.662	***
CO2	←	Energy	0.849	0	24.004	***
HE	←	T	0.253	0.419	2.998	***
HE	←	Energy	0.502	0.03	4.813	***
HE	←	CO2	0.1	11.185	1.391	***

Note: ***Denotes a significance level of 1%.

Table 5 Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects Between Constructs

Endogenous Variable	Exogenous Variables	Direct Effect	Indirect Effect	Total Effect
HE	Energy	0.502	0.085	0.587
	CO2	0.100	0.000	0.1
	Trade	0.253	0.524	0.777