Better Adherence to the Taiwan Daily Food Guide is Associated with a Reduced Risk of Osteoporosis: A Population-Based Study in Taiwan

Figures & data

Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of Study Participants (n=2532)

Variables	Non-Osteoporosis	Osteoporosis	p-value
	N=1977	N=555
Sex
Men	1057 (53.46)	173 (31.17)	<0.0001
Women	920 (46.54)	382 (68.83)
Age
Age ≤ 30	310 (15.68)	43 (7.75)	<0.0001
40 ≥ age > 30	262 (13.25)	16 (2.88)
50 ≥ age > 40	333 (16.84)	18 (3.24)
65 ≥ age > 50	638 (32.27)	172 (30.99)
Age > 65	434 (21.96)	306 (55.14)
BMI
BMI < 24	925 (46.79)	366 (65.95)	<0.0001
27 > BMI ≥ 24	533 (26.96)	109 (19.64)
BMI ≥ 27	519 (26.25)	80 (14.41)
Education
Elementary school	1058 (53.52)	212 (38.20)	<0.0001
Junior high and high school	429 (21.70)	286 (51.53)
College or above	490 (24.78)	57 (10.27)
Alcohol drinking
Non	847 (42.84)	339 (61.08)	<0.0001
Rarely	847 (42.84)	169 (30.45)
Frequently	283 (14.32)	47 (8.47)
Smoking status
Never	1355 (68.54)	437 (78.74)	<0.0001
Ever smoke	309 (15.63)	57 (10.27)
Current smoke	313 (15.83)	61 (10.99)
Physical activity
Low	665 (33.64)	320 (57.66)	<0.0001
Medium	1254 (63.43)	227 (40.90)
High	58 (2.93)	8 (1.44)
Marital status
Single	364 (18.41)	57 (10.27)	<0.0001
Married or lived together	1386 (70.11)	348 (62.70)
Divorced, separated, widowed, or refused to answer	227 (11.48)	150 (27.03)
Family income
Income < NT $10,000	126 (6.37)	84 (15.14)	<0.0001
NT $40,000 > income ≥ NT $10,000	398 (20.13)	135 (24.32)
NT $80,000 > income ≥ NT $40,000	528 (26.71)	99 (17.84)
Income ≥ NT $80,000	488 (24.68)	96 (17.30)
Do not know or refuse	437 (22.11)	141 (25.40)

Abbreviations: NT, The New Taiwan dollars; BMI, body mass index.

Table 2 Associations of Adherence to the Daily Food Guide Scores with BMD at Different BMD Sites

BMD	Levels of Adherence to the Daily Food Guide				Excess (N=724)
	Q1 (N=453)	Q2 (N=452)	Q3 (N=451)	Q4 (N=452)
Head BMD	Reference	1.15 (0.87–1.51)	1.14 (0.86–1.50)	1.37 (1.03–1.83)	1.42 (1.08–1.86)
Arm BMD	Reference	0.88 (0.62–1.23)	1.07 (0.75–1.50)	0.83 (0.59–1.17)	1.09 (0.78–1.51)
Leg BMD	Reference	0.97 (0.68–1.37)	1.26 (0.89–1.79)	1.19 (0.84–1.69)	1.33 (0.95–1.87)
Trunk BMD	Reference	1.02 (0.74–1.40)	1.08 (0.79–1.49)	1.14 (0.82–1.58)	1.25 (0.92–1.71)
Rib BMD	Reference	1.10 (0.78–1.53)	1.14 (0.81–1.60)	1.42 (1.01–2.01)	1.43 (1.03–2.00)
Pelvis BMD	Reference	1.12 (0.82–1.53)	1.35 (0.99–1.84)	1.42 (1.03–1.95)	1.57 (1.16–2.13)
Spine BMD	Reference	1.16 (0.87–1.57)	1.21 (0.90–1.64)	1.28 (0.94–1.73)	1.41 (1.05–1.89)
Total BMD	Reference	1.03 (0.75–1.41)	1.21 (0.88–1.66)	1.32 (0.96–1.82)	1.59 (1.16–2.16)

Notes: The cut-off value for each BMD site is median value; All logistic models were adjusted for age, sex, BMI, education level, alcohol drinking, smoking status, physical activity, marital status, and family income.

Abbreviation: Q, quartile.

Table 3 Associations Between the Daily Food Guide Adherence Score and Risk of Having Osteoporosis

Variables	n=2532
Diet score
Total scores equal to or lower than recommendation
Group 1	Reference
Group 2	0.90 (0.62–1.29)
Group 3	0.75 (0.51–1.10)
Group 4	0.61 (0.42–0.88)
Total scores higher than recommendation
Group 5	0.59 (0.42–0.84)
Sex
Female	Reference
Male	0.32 (0.24–0.43)
Age
Age ≤ 30	Reference
40 ≥ age > 30	0.60 (0.31–1.17)
50 ≥ age > 40	0.62 (0.31–1.24)
65 ≥ age > 50	4.19 (2.35–7.49)
Age > 65	11.66 (6.02–22.61)
BMI
BMI < 24	Reference
27 > BMI ≥ 24	0.37 (0.28–0.49)
BMI ≥ 27	0.24 (0.18–0.32)
Education
College or above	Reference
Junior high and high school	2.20 (1.42–3.41)
Elementary school	1.58 (1.09–2.31)
Drink
No	Reference
Rarely	0.78 (0.61–1.00)
Frequently	0.52 (0.35–0.78)
Smoke
No	Reference
Ever smoke	1.09 (0.73–1.62)
Current smoke	1.36 (0.92–1.99)
Physical activity
Low	Reference
Medium	1.10 (0.80–1.53)
High	1.56 (0.67–3.64)
Marital status
Married or lived together	Reference
Single	2.14 (1.28–3.55)
Divorced, separated, widowed, or refused to answer	1.38 (1.04–1.84)
Family income
Income < NT $10,000	Reference
NT $40,000 > income ≥ NT $10,000	0.71 (0.48–1.06)
NT $80,000 > income ≥ NT $40,000	0.76 (0.50–1.16)
Income ≥ NT $80,000	1.07 (0.68–1.67)
Do not know or refuse	0.73 (0.49–1.08)

Notes: All logistic models were adjusted for age, sex, BMI, education level, alcohol drinking, smoking status, physical activity, marital status, and family income.

Abbreviations: NT, The New Taiwan dollars; BMI, body mass index.