Combination therapies for the management of nocturia and its comorbidities

Figures & data

Table 1 The pathophysiological factors and etiology of nocturia

1. Nocturnal polyuria

a. Decrease in nocturnal vasopressin

b. Increase in atrial natriuretic peptide

c. Cardiac insufficiency, congestive heart failure

d. Obstructive sleep apnea

e. Diuretic usage (at evening)

f. Lower extremity venous insufficiency

g. Evening polydipsia, alcoholism

2. Global polyuria

a. Diabetes insipidus

b. Diabetes mellitus

c. Estrogen insufficiency in women

d. Habitual polydipsia

e. Renal insufficiency

f. Hypercalcemia- and hypercalciuria-related diseases

3. Decreased nocturnal bladder capacity

a. Detrusor overactivity

b. Bladder outlet obstruction and related postvoidal residual urine

c. Bladder hypersensitivity

d. Urinary tract infection

e. Bladder wall fibrosis

f. Bladder tumor, stone, or foreign body

g. Interstitial cystitis

h. Postsurgical bladder dysfunction

4. Sleep disturbances

a. Environmental impairments

b. Anxiety disorders

c. Depression

d. Stimulant usage

e. Melatonin deficiency of aging