Incarceration history relative to health, substance use, and violence in a sample of vulnerable South African women: implications for health services in criminal justice settings

Figures & data

Table 3 Reasons for Using Drugs (n = 720)a

Do you use drugs …	Ever incarcerated % (n = 251)	Never incarcerated % (n = 469)	Odds ratio (99% confidence interval)
When you have an argument with a friend or family member?	61.4*	50.1	1.58 (1.05–2.38)
When you feel sad or depressed?	75.3*	64.4	1.69 (1.07–2.65)
When you want to have a good time?	83.7	84.2	0.96 (0.55–1.66)
When you are with other people who are drinking or using other drugs?	74.1***	52.7	2.57 (1.65–4.00)
When it is a special occasion or you feel like celebrating?	83.7	80.0	1.28 (0.76–2.18)
When you suddenly have a strong urge to drink or use other drugs?	76.9***	54.3	2.80 (1.78–4.41)
When you feel stressed and want to relax?	84.1*	74.4	1.81 (1.08–3.05)
When you feel you are letting yourself down?	68.9***	53.1	1.96 (1.28–3.00)
When you feel angry?	74.9***	59.5	2.03 (1.30–3.18)
When you feel bored?	63.4	53.5	1.50 (0.99–2.27)
When you are in (physical) pain?	51.8***	30.3	2.47 (1.63–3.75)
When you have trouble sleeping?	57.8*	46.7	1.56 (1.04–2.34)

Notes:

* P < 0.01;

** P < 0.001;

*** P < 0.0001;

a all 720 participants reported lifetime drug use.

Table 1 Participant characteristics by incarceration history (n = 720)

	Ever incarcerated (n = 251)	Never incarcerated (n = 469)	Effect size (99% confidence interval)
Demographics
Black African vs coloured	25.1%	55.7%***	OR = 0.27 (0.17–0.42)
Age	23.8* (4.2)	22.8 (4.3)	d = 0.23 (0.03–0.43)
Years of education	8.9 (1.9)	9.6*** (1.9)	d = 0.38 (0.18–0.58)
Unemployed	94.0%*	87.9%	OR = 2.18 (1.00–4.73)
Current (past 6 month) criminal behavior
Possessed drugs	54%***	29%	OR = 2.96 (1.94–4.50)
Been drunk in public	35%***	19%	OR = 2.20 (1.40–3.47)
Been in a fight	37%***	16%	OR = 3.15 (2.00–5.02)
Stolen anything	20%***	8%	OR = 2.75 (1.51–5.01)
Been involved in drug dealing/smuggling	15%***	5%	OR = 3.46 (1.69–7.06)

Notes:

* P < 0.01;

** P < 0.001;

*** P < 0.0001; values in the table represent means and standard deviations, unless otherwise noted.

Abbreviations: d, Cohen’s d; OR, odds ratio.

Table 2 Health indicators by incarceration history (n = 720)

	Ever incarcerated (n = 251)	Never incarcerated (n = 469)	Effect size (99% confidence interval)
Mental health
Depressive symptoms	31.6*** (11.7)	25.2 (13.1)	d = 0.51 (0.31–0.71)
Anxiety symptoms	20.1*** (5.6)	17.2 (6.1)	d = 0.50 (0.30–0.71)
Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms	36.1*** (9.9)	30.5 (11.1)	d = 0.53 (0.32–0.73)
Substance use
Frequent drinker (2+ times/week)	35.1%	43.3%	OR = 0.71 (0.47–1.07)
Extreme heavy drinker (7+ drinks/day)	45.8%**	33.1%	OR = 1.71 (1.13–2.59)
Used the following in past 30 days?
Cannabis	80.9%	85.1%	OR = 0.74 (0.44–1.26)
Tik (methamphetamine)	76.9%***	56.7%	OR = 2.54 (1.61–4.00)
Heroin	7.6%	5.3%	OR = 1.45 (0.65–3.27)
Mandrax (methaqualone)	37.1%***	17.3%	OR = 2.82 (1.78–4.47)
STIs and overall health
Have you ever been tested for HIV?	80.9%	85.7%	OR = 0.70 (0.41–1.20)
If tested, have you ever had an HIV test come back positive?a	11.8%	14.9%	OR = 0.76 (0.39–1.49)
Currently has 2+ STI symptoms	38.7%*	28.6%	OR = 1.57 (1.03–2.41)
In general, how is your health currently (1 = excellent, 5 = poor)	2.4** (1.09)	2.1 (1.03)	d = 0.30 (0.10–0.51)

Notes:

* P < 0.01;

** P < 0.001;

*** P < 0.0001; values in the table represent means and standard deviations, unless otherwise noted;

a n = 605.

Abbreviations: d, Cohen’s d; OR, odds ratio.

Table 4 Physical and sexual victimization (n = 720)

	Ever incarcerated (n = 251)	Never incarcerated (n = 469)	Effect size (99% confidence interval)
Has anyone ever physically hurt you, striking or beating you to the point you had bruises?	60.2%***	28.6%	OR = 3.77 (2.47–5.77)
Abuse by current partner scale scorea	9.2*** (9.9)	5.4 (8.8)	d = 0.42 (0.21–0.63)
Victim of violent crime, ever	85.7%***	66.3%	OR = 3.03 (1.79–5.14)
Victim of violent crime, last 6 months?	63.8%***	45.0%	OR = 2.15 (1.42–3.25)
Has anyone ever forced you to participate in sexual acts against your will?a	30.7%***	17.1%	OR = 2.15 (1.34–3.45)
Ever had sex with several men at the same time when you didn’t consent or you were forced?b	5.6%	5.1%	OR = 1.09 (0.45–2.66)
Verbally or physically aggressive during a disagreement in the past 3 months	82.1%***	58.0%	OR = 3.32 (2.04–5.40)
In the last 30 days, did you push, grab, shove, or hit your main sexual partner?b	26.6%***	14.3%	OR = 2.18 (1.30–3.64)

Notes:

* P < 0.01;

** P < 0.001;

*** P < 0.0001; values in the table represent means and standard deviations, unless otherwise noted;

a n = 688;

b n = 719.

Abbreviations: d, Cohen’s d; OR, odds ratio.