The Relationship Between Glycemic Control and Concomitant Hypertension on Arterial Stiffness in Type II Diabetes

Figures & data

Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of Participants Between Non-Diabetes and Diabetes

Variables	Participants (n=109)		P-value
	Non-Diabetes (n=37)	Diabetes (n=72)
Sex			0.164
Male (n (%))	11 (29.7)	13 (18.1)
Female (n (%))	26 (70.3)	59 (81.9)
Age (years)	49.5 ± 9.8	61.0 ± 9.9	< 0.001*
Heart rate (bpm)	73.00 (65.00–78.25)	95.50 (77.00–114.25)	< 0.001*
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)	124.00 (113.25–139.75)	143.75 (126.63–155.75)	< 0.001*
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)	79.77 ± 9.50	81.58 ± 12.53	0.401
Body composition
BMI (kg/m^2)	25.00 ± 3.78	25.98 ± 4.39	0.250
Body fat (%)	29.90 (24.25–35.20)	33.40 (29.18–35.95)	0.024*
Visceral fat (%)	9.00 (5.50–11.50)	9.50 (7.00–13.25)	0.118
Waist-hip ratio	0.87 ± 0.05	0.92 ± 0.06	< 0.001*
Lipid profile
Total cholesterol (mmol/L)	6.23 (5.57–6.66)	4.40 (3.96–5.50)	< 0.001*
Triglyceride (mmol/L)	1.04 (0.66–1.52)	1.63 (1.27–2.41)	< 0.001*
HDL-C (mmol/L)	1.59 ± 0.34	1.74 ± 0.48	0.092
LDL-C (mmol/L)	3.70 (3.13–4.36)	1.91 (1.29–2.82)	< 0.001*
Medical History
Hypertension	9 (24.3)	59 (81.9)	< 0.001*
Hyperlipidemia	3 (8.1)	50 (69.4)	< 0.001*
Smoking	5 (13.5)	16 (22.2)	0.204
Mean CAVI	7.89 ± 0.87	8.99 ± 1.23	< 0.001*

Notes: Values are displayed as n (%), mean ± SD, and median (IQR). * represents statistical significance.

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; CAVI, cardio-ankle vascular index; HDL, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.

Table 2 Comparison of Clinical Variables Between Normal and Abnormal CAVI

Variables	Participants (n=109)		P-value
	Normal CAVI (n=34)	Abnormal CAVI (n=75)
Sex			0.808
Male	7 (20.6)	17 (22.7)
Female	27 (79.4)	58 (77.3)
Age (years)	50.5 ± 10.4	60.1 ± 10.3	< 0.001*
Heart rate (bpm)	78.75 (73.00–94.63)	82.00 (70.00–112.50)	0.617
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)	124.75 (116.87–140.00)	143.50 (125.50–154.00)	0.001*
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)	80.34 ± 11.53	81.25 ± 11.67	0.704
Body composition
BMI (kg/m^2)	26.26 ± 3.91	25.37 ± 4.32	0.306
Body fat (%)	32.00 (28.63–35.43)	33.10 (28.50–35.70)	0.857
Visceral fat (%)	9.50 (6.50–11.63)	9.00 (6.00–12.00)	0.950
Waist-hip ratio	0.89 ± 0.05	0.91 ± 0.06	0.235
Lipid profile
Total cholesterol (mmol/L)	5.75 (4.57–6.79)	5.07 (4.06–5.90)	0.006*
Triglyceride (mmol/L)	1.30 (0.95–1.70)	1.58 (1.14–2.31)	0.065
HDL-C (mmol/L)	1.64 ± 0.39	1.71 ± 0.46	0.482
LDL-C (mmol/L)	2.75 (1.80–4.05)	2.20 (1.50–3.57)	0.165
Diabetes	13 (38.2)	59 (78.7)	< 0.001*
Hypertension	11 (32.4)	44 (58.7)	0.011*
Mean CAVI	7.29 ± 0.62	9.22 ± 0.93	< 0.001*

Notes: Values are displayed as n (%), mean ± SD, and median (IQR). * represents statistical significance. Abnormal CAVI is defined as CAVI ≥ 8.

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; CAVI, cardio-ankle vascular index; HDL, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.

Table 3 Pearson Correlation and Multiple Linear Regression Analysis of CAVI and Other Clinical Variables in All Participants

Variables	Pearson Correlation		Multiple Regression
	r	P-value	β	95% CI		P-value
				Lower	Upper
Age	0.509	< 0.001*	0.332	0.018	0.054	< 0.001*
Sex	0.046	0.632
Systolic blood pressure	0.392	< 0.001*	0.261	0.006	0.026	0.002*
Diastolic blood pressure	0.015	0.880
Heart rate	0.223	0.020*
BMI	−0.296	0.002*	−0.241	−0.116	−0.025	0.003*
Body fat	−0.047	0.625
Visceral fat	−0.182	0.059
Waist-hip ratio	0.022	0.818
Fasting blood sugar	0.319	0.001*	0.215	0.002	0.013	0.006*
Total cholesterol	−0.265	0.005*
Triglyceride	0.183	0.056
HDL-C	0.089	0.356
LDL-C	−0.161	0.095
Diabetes	0.424	< 0.001*
Hypertension	0.352	< 0.001*

Notes: * Represents statistical significance. Adjusted R² = 0.388. Adjusting for sex, heart rate, and total cholesterol.

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; CAVI, cardio-ankle vascular index; HDL, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; CI, confidence interval; r, Pearson correlation coefficient; β, standardized coefficients.

Table 4 Demographic Characteristics of Diabetic Participants Between Controllable Diabetes and Uncontrollable Diabetes

Variables	Diabetes (n=72)		P-value
	Controllable Diabetes (n=23)	Uncontrollable Diabetes (n=49)
Sex			0.449
Male	3 (13)	10 (20.4)
Female	20 (87)	39 (79.6)
Age (years)	62.2 ± 9.8	60.5 ± 10.0	0.495
Heart rate (bpm)	113.50 (103.25–125.00)	82.50 (72.75–100.50)	< 0.001*
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)	147.00 (136.00–156.50)	143.00 (125.50–154.00)	0.227
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)	81.65 ± 13.26	81.55 ± 12.31	0.975
Body composition
BMI (kg/m^2)	24.48 ± 3.52	26.69 ± 4.61	0.045*
Body fat (%)	31.70 (28.60–35.70)	33.50 (29.40–36.80)	0.499
Visceral fat (%)	8.00 (5.50–11.30)	10.00 (7.65–15.00)	0.031*
Waist-hip ratio	0.93 ± 0.05	0.93 ± 0.06	0.074
Lipid profile
Total cholesterol (mmol/L)	4.24 (3.96–4.84)	4.58 (3.90–5.69)	0.229
Triglyceride (mmol/L)	1.70 (1.14–2.07)	1.61 (1.27–2.53)	0.574
HDL-C (mmol/L)	1.75 ± 0.48	1.74 ± 0.48	0.907
LDL-C (mmol/L)	1.86 (1.29–2.30)	2.04 (1.29–3.09)	0.316
Fasting blood sugar (mmol/L)	6.38 (5.94–6.94)	7.05 (5.99–8.82)	0.022*
HbA1c (%)	6.00 (5.80–6.20)	7.60 (7.00–8.35)	< 0.001*
Creatinine (μmol/L)	82.23 (69.85–91.96)	84.00 (71.62–101.68)	0.677
eGFR (mL/s)	1.21 ± 0.40	1.18 ± 0.29	0.708
Medical History
Hypertension	19 (82.6)	40 (81.6)	0.920
Hyperlipidemia	14 (60.9)	36 (73.5)	0.279
Smoking	5 (21.7)	11 (22.4)	0.946
Medications
Antihypertensive drugs	15 (65.2)	32 (65.3)	0.994
Lipid lowering drugs	9 (39.1)	27 (55.1)	0.206
Mean CAVI	8.83 ± 1.40	9.06 ± 1.15	0.468

Notes: Values are displayed as n (%), mean ± SD, and median (IQR). * represents statistical significance.

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; CAVI, cardio-ankle vascular index; HDL, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HbA1c, hemoglobin A1c; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate.

Table 5 Pearson Correlation and Multiple Linear Regression Analysis of CAVI and Other Clinical Variables in Diabetic Participants

Variables	Pearson		Multiple Regression
	r	P-value	β	95% CI		P-value
				Lower	Upper
Age	0.377	0.001*
Sex	0.005	0.968
Systolic blood pressure	0.269	0.022*	0.262	0.004	0.031	0.013*
Diastolic blood pressure	0.014	0.909
Heart rate	0.056	0.639
BMI	−0.447	< 0.001*	−0.443	−0.182	−0.066	< 0.001*
Body fat	−0.265	0.024*
Visceral fat	−0.352	0.002*
Waist-hip ratio	−0.208	0.080
Fasting blood sugar	0.138	0.249
HbA1c	0.087	0.469
Total cholesterol	0.054	0.651
Triglyceride	0.080	0.504
HDL-C	0.032	0.792
LDL-C	0.011	0.924
Hypertension	0.263	0.025*

Notes: * Represents statistical significance. Adjusted R² = 0.247. Adjusting for age and sex.

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; CAVI, cardio-ankle vascular index; HDL, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HbA1c, hemoglobin A1c; CI, confidence interval; r, Pearson correlation coefficient; β, standardized coefficients.

Table 6 Association Between Clinical Risk Factors and Abnormal CAVI

Clinical Risk Factors		Relative Risk	95% CI		P-value
Diabetes	Hypertension		Lower	Upper
Yes	No	2.270	1.293	3.984	0.002*
No	Yes	1.838	0.920	3.672	0.151
Yes	Yes	2.429	1.410	4.184	< 0.001*

Notes: * Represents statistical significance. Abnormal CAVI is defined as CAVI ≥ 8.

Abbreviations: CAVI, cardio-ankle vascular index; CI, confidence interval.