Insights into the search for new drugs from traditional knowledge: An ethnobotanical and chemical–ecological perspective

Figures & data

Table 1.  Medicinal plants collected to study the criteria to be used for the selection and use in the Caatinga and the Atlantic Forest, northeastern Brazil.

Caatinga
Common name	Family	Scientific name	Habit	Life strategy	RI	Chemical compounds
Ameixa	Olacaceae	Ximenia americana L.	Tree	K	1.51	T, S, TE
Angico	Mimosaceae	Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil (Griseb.) Altschul.	Tree	K	0.96	T, S, F, A
Aroeira	Anacardiaceae	Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão	Tree	K	1.55	T, S, A
Baraúna	Anacardiaceae	Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl.	Tree	K	0.30	T, S, A
Bom nome	Celastraceae	Maytenus rigida Mart.	Tree	K	1.78	T, S, TE
Cardeiro	Cactaceae	Cereus jamacaru DC.	Tree	K	0.53	C, TE
Catingueira	Caesalpiniaceae	Caesalpinia pyramidalis Tul.	Tree	K	0.68	T, S
Cumaru	Fabaceae	Amburana cearensis (Allemão) A.C. Sm.	Tree	K	1.58	T, F, TE
Favela	Euphorbiaceae	Cnidoscolus quercifolius Pohl.	Tree	K	1.66	C, TE
Feijão brabo	Capparaceae	Capparis flexuosa (L.) L.	Tree	K	0.15	TE
Imbiratanha	Bombacaceae	Pseudobombax marginatum (A. St.-Hill., Juss. & Cambess.) A. Robyns	Tree	K	1.00	T, S, Q, C, TE
Juazeiro	Rhamnaceae	Zizyphus joazeiro Mart.	Tree	K	1.12	S, C
Jucá	Caesalpiniaceae	Caesalpinia ferrea Mart. ex Tul. var. leiostachya Benth.	Tree	K	0.53	T, S
Jurema branca	Mimosaceae	Piptadenia stipulacea (Benth.) Ducke.	Tree	K	0.49	Q, F, TE
Jurema preta	Mimosaceae	Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd.) Poir.	Tree	K	0.72	T, S, Q, C, C
Mororó	Caesalpiniaceae	Bauhinia cheilantha (Bong.) Steud.	Tree	K	1.64	S, Q, F, TE
Mulungu	Fabaceae	Erythrina velutina Willd.	Tree	K	1.22	TE
Pereiro	Apocynaceae	Aspidosperma pyrifolium Mart.	Tree	K	0.87	T, Q, C, TE, A
Quixabeira	Sapotaceae	Sideroxylon obtusifolium (Roem. & Schult.) T.D. Penn.	Tree	K	1.56	T, S, Q, TE
Umburana	Burseraceae	Commiphora leptophloeos (Mart.) J.B.	Tree	K	1.61	T, S, C, TE
Umbuzeiro	Anacardiaceae	Spondias tuberosa Arruda	Tree	K	0.15	T, S, C
Coroa de frade	Cactaceae	Melocactus sp.	Shrub	K	0.15	C, TE
Macambira de pedra	Bromeliaceae	Encholirium sp.	Shrub	K	0.15	T, S, TE
Marmeleiro	Euphorbiaceae	Croton blanchetianus Baill.	Shrub	K	0.53	T, S, C, TE
Marmeleiro branco	Euphorbiaceae	Croton sincorensis Mart. ex Müll. Arg.	Shrub	K	0.34	S, F, C, TE, A
Oliveira	Solanaceae	Nicotiana glauca Graham	Shrub	K	0.15	T, S, Q, F, C, TE, A
Pinhão brabo	Euphorbiaceae	Jatropha mollissima (Pohl) Baill.	Shrub	K	0.30	T, S, C, A
Cabeça de negro	Cucurbitaceae	Wilbrandia sp.	Herb	K	0.15	S, C, TE
Capitão	Amaranthaceae	Gomphrena basilanata Suesseng.	Herb	r	0.38	S, C, TE
Caruá	Bromeliaceae	Neoglaziovia sp.	Herb	K	0.30	T, F
Gogoia	Solanaceae	Solanum agrarium Sendtner.	Herb	r	0.46	S, C, A
Mão fechada	Selaginellaceae	Selaginella convoluta (Arn.) Spring.	Herb	r	0.15	S, Q
Salambaia	Bromeliaceae	Tillandsia recurvata (L.) L.	Herb	r	0.30	T, S, TE
Salambaia do pinhão brabo	Bromeliaceae	Tillandsia streptocarpa Baker	Herb	r	0.34	T, S, F, TE
Urtiga branca	Loasaceae	Aosa rupestris (Gardner) Weigend	Herb	r	0.95	S, C, TE
Algaroba	Mimosaceae	Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.	Tree	K	0.15	T, S, F, C, TE
Cajueiro roxo	Anacardiaceae	Anacardium occidentale L.	Tree	K	1.58	T, S,Q, TE
Coqueiro	Arecaceae	Cocos nucifera L.	Tree	K	0.30	C, TE
Goiabeira	Myrtaceae	Psidium guajava L.	Tree	K	0.34	T, S, Q, F, TE, F
Graviola	Annonaceae	Annona muricata L.	Tree	K	0.15	T, S, Q, F, TE, F
Mamoeiro	Caricaceae	Carica papaya L.	Tree	K	0.49	T, S, Q, F, TE
Alfazema braba	Lamiaceae	Hyptis suaveolens Poit.	Shrub	K	0.15	T, S, Q, F, TE
Herb cidreira	Verbenaceae	Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E.Br.	Shrub	K	1.57	Q, TE
Hortelã do pará	Lamiaceae	Plectranthus barbatus Andr.	Shrub	K	0.57	T, S, Q, F, TE, A
Maracujá	Passifloraceae	Passiflora edulis Sims.	Shrub	K	0.30	S, Q, TE
Palma	Cactaceae	Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.	Shrub	K	0.15	Q, TE
Alecrim	Lamiaceae	Rosmarinus officinalis L.	Herb	K	0.88	T, S, F, TE
Arruda	Rutaceae	Ruta graveolens L.	Herb	r	1.07	T, S, Q, F, C, TE, A
Capim santo	Poaceae	Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf	Herb	K	1.30	T, S, F, C, TE, A
Espinho de cigano	Asteraceae	Acanthospermum hispidum DC.	Herb	r	0.45	S, Q, F, TE
Hortelã graúda	Lamiaceae	Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng.	Herb	K	0.46	S, Q, F, TE
Hortelã miúda	Lamiaceae	Mentha piperita L.	Herb	r	1.76	T, S, Q, F, C, TE
Macela	Asteraceae	Egletes viscosa (L.) Less.	Herb	r	0.38	Q, TE
Malva branca	Sterculiaceae	Waltheria rotundifolia Schrank	Herb	r	0.15	T, S, C, TE
Malva rosa	Sterculiaceae	Melochia tomentosa L.	Herb	r	0.95	T, S, Q, F, C, TE
Manjericão	Lamiaceae	Ocimum basilicum L.	Herb	r	0.60	T, Q, C, TE
Maria três babados	Lamiaceae	Hyptis sp.	Herb	r	0.15	Q, F, TE
Mastruz	Amaranthaceae	Chenopodium ambrosioides L.	Herb	r	1.19	T, S, Q, TE
Melância	Cucurbitaceae	Citrillus vulgaris Schard.	Herb	r	0.30	T, S
Mussambê	Capparaceae	Cleome spinosa Jacq.	Herb	K	0.46	S, C, TE
Novalgina	Amaranthaceae	Alternanthera dentata (Moench.) Stuchlik. ex R.E. Fr.	Herb	r	0.34	T, S, Q
Pega pinto	Nyctaginaceae	Boerhavia diffusa L.	Herb	r	0.19	S, C
Penicilina	Amaranthaceae	Alternanthera sp.	Herb	r	0.19	S, F
Saião	Crassulaceae	Kalanchoe brasilensis Camb.	Herb	r	0.84	S, F, C
Quebra pedra	Euphorbiaceae	Phylanthus sp.	Herb	r	0.57	T, S, Q, F, TE
Atlantic Forest
Common name	Family	Scientific name	Habit	Life strategy	RI	Phytocompounds
Aroeira	Anacardiaceae	Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi	Tree	K	1.60	T, S, Q, F, TE
Babatenom	Mimosaceae	Pithecellobium cochliocarpum (Gomez) Macbr.	Tree	K	1.14	S, Q, TE, A
Canela	Lauraceae	Nectandra cuspidata Ness & Mart.	Tree	K	0.95	S, Q, F, C, TE, A
Embaúba branca	Cecropiaceae	Cecropia palmata Willd.	Tree	K	0.42	S, Q, F, TE, A
Espinheiro	Mimosaceae	Acacia sp.	Tree	K	0.12	C
Imbira branca	Flacourtiaceae	Sem identificação 1	Tree	K	0.12	S, TE
Imbira vermelha	Annonaceae	Xylopia frutescens Aubl.	Tree	K	0.12	S, Q, F, TE
Lacre	Clusiaceae	Vismia guianensis (Aubl.) Choisy	Tree	K	0.42	T, S, F, TE, A
Mutamba	Sterculiaceae	Guazuma ulmifolia L.	Tree	K	0.24	S, Q, C, TE
Macaíba	Arecaceae	Acrocomia intumescens Drude	Tree	K	0.76	S, F, TE
Jenipapo	Rubiaceae	Genipa americana L.	Tree	K	0.64	C
João mole	Nyctaginaceae	Guapira sp.	Tree	K	0.24	T, S, Q, F, TE
Pau daico roxo	Bignoniaceae	Tabebuia avellanedae Lorentz ex Griseb.	Tree	K	0.54	T, S, TE
Pata de vaca	Caesalpiniaceae	Bauhinia forficata Link	Tree	K	0.30	S, Q, F, TE
Sucupira preta	Fabaceae	Bowdichia virgilioides Kunth	Tree	K	0.39	F, C, TE, A
Araça	Myrtaceae	Psidium guineense Sw.	Shrub	K	0.12	T, Q, F, TE
Cipó japecanga	Smilacaceae	Smilax rotundifolia L.	Shrub	K	0.12	S, Q, F
Chumbinho	Verbenaceae	Lantana camara L.	Shrub	K	0.19	S, Q, F
Acônito	Amaranthaceae	Pfaffia glomerata (Spreng.) Pederson	Herb	r	0.27	S, Q, F
Alho do mato	Iridaceae	Eleutherine bulbosa (Mill.) Urb.	Herb	r	0.15	S, F, TE
Cana de macaco	Zingiberaceae	Costus sp.	Herb	r	0.84	Q
Cipó cururu	Sapindaceae	Serjania sp.	Herb	K	0.12	S, Q, F, C, TE
Melão são caetano	Cucurbitaceae	Momordica charantia L.	Herb	r	0.12	Q, F
Pepaconha	Violaceae	Hybanthus sp.	Herb	r	0.51	S, Q, F
Salambaia	Bromeliaceae	Tillandsia usneoides (L.) L.	Herb	r	0.24	Q, F, C
Urinana	Fabaceae	Zornia sp.	Herb	r	0.15	F
Abacate	Lauraceae	Persea americana Mill.	Tree	K	0.62	S, Q, F
Acerola	Malpighiaceae	Malpighia glabra L.	Tree	K	0.51	A
Azeitona preta	Myrtaceae	Syrygium jambolanum (Lam.) DC.	Tree	K	0.69	T, Q, F
Carambola	Oxalidaceae	Averrhoa carambola L.	Tree	K	0.30	Q, F
Eucalipto	Myrtaceae	Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.	Tree	K	0.24	T, Q, F, A
Goiaba	Myrtaceae	Psidium guajava L.	Tree	K	0.24	T, S, Q, F, TE, A
Jaca	Moraceae	Artocarpus integrifolia L. f.	Tree	K	0.24	S, Q, F, C, TE, A
Juá	Rhamnaceae	Zizyphus joazeiro Mart.	Tree	K	0.76	A
Laranja	Rutaceae	Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck	Tree	K	0.93	S, Q, F, C, TE
Limão	Rutaceae	Citrus limonia Osbeck	Tree	K	0.57	S, F, C, TE, A
Manga	Anacardiaceae	Mangifera indica L.	Tree	K	0.62	T, S, Q, F, A
Mamão	Caricaceae	Carica papaya L.	Tree	K	0.46	Q, A
Pinha	Annonaceae	Annona squamosa L.	Tree	K	0.12	Q, F, A
Siriguela	Anacardiaceae	Spondias purpurea L.	Tree	K	0.27	T, Q, F
Algodão	Malvaceae	Gossypium barbadense L.	Shrub	K	0.20	F
Alcachofra	Asteraceae	Vernonia condensata Baker	Shrub	K	0.83	Q, F, TE, A
Alfavaca de caboclo	Lamiaceae	Ocimum campechianum Mill.	Shrub	r	0.69	Q, F, TE
Boa noite branca	Apocynaceae	Catharanthus roseos L. G. Don.	Shrub	k	0.27	S, Q, F, C, TE, A
Café	Vitaceae	Coffea sp.	Shrub	K	0.27	S, Q, F, TE, A
Colônia	Zingiberaceae	Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) Burt. ex R. M. Smith	Shrub	K	0.91	S, F, TE
Herb cidreira	Verbenaceae	Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E.Br.	Shrub	K	1.86	Q, F, TE
Flor de sabugo	Caprifoliaceae	Sambucus nigra L.	Shrub	K	0.57	S, Q, F, TE, A
Hortelã grande	Lamiaceae	Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng.	Shrub	K	1.22	S, Q, F, TE
Insulina	Vitaceae	Cissus verticillata (L.) Nicolson & C.E. Jarvis	Shrub	K	0.12	Q, F, TE
Jurubeba	Solanaceae	Solanum paniculatum L.	Shrub	K	0.35	S, Q, F, TE, A
Liamba	Verbenaceae	Vitex agnus-castus L.	Shrub	K	0.24	S, Q, F
Mastruz	Chenopodiaceae	Chenopodium ambrosioides L.	Shrub	r	0.68	Q, F
Mussambê	Capparaceae	Cleome spinosa Jacq.	Shrub	K	0.30	S, Q, F, C
Pitanga	Myrtaceae	Eugenia uniflora L.	Shrub	K	0.59	T, Q, F
Pimenta	Solanaceae	Capsicum frutescens L.	Shrub	K	0.24	S, Q, F, A
Pimenta do reino	Piperaceae	Piper nigrum L.	Shrub	K	0.24	S, Q, F, TE, A
Pinhão roxo	Euphorbiaceae	Jatropha gossypiifolia L.	Shrub	K	0.35	S, Q, F
Rosa branca	Rosaceae	Rosa sp.2	Shrub	K	0.62	T, S, F
Salsa	Convolvulaceae	Ipomoea sp.	Shrub	K	0.15	Q, F, TE
Agrião	Brassicaceae	Nasturtium officinale R. Br.	Herb	K	0.53	Q, F, TE, A
Arruda	Rutaceae	Ruta graveolens L.	Herb	r	1.08	Q, F, TE, A
Alvomoura	Solanaceae	Solanum sp.	Herb	r	0.30	S, Q, F, TE, A
Capim santo	Poaceae	Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf	Herb	K	1.47	S, F, TE, A
Cardo santo	Papaveraceae	Argemone mexicana L.	Herb	r	0.24	F, C, A
Herb doce	Apiaceae	Pimpinella anisum L.	Herb	r	1.09	S, F, C
Hortelã pequena	Lamiaceae	Mentha piperita L.	Herb	K	2.00	Q, F, TE
Hortelã pastilha	Lamiaceae	Mentha pulegium L.	Herb	r	1.07	S, Q, F, TE
Manjericão	Lamiaceae	Ocimum basilicum L.	Herb	r	1.16	Q, F
Manjirioba	Caesalpiniaceae	Senna occidentalis (L.) Link.	Herb	r	0.76	S, Q, F, A
Pega pinto	Nyctaginaceae	Boerhavia diffusa L.	Herb	K	0.83	Q, F
Quebra pedra	Euphorbiaceae	Phyllanthus niruri L.	Herb	r	0.46	T, Q, F
Rabo de paposa	Asteraceae	Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) E. Walken	Herb	r	0.12	Q, F, TE, A
Timpi	Phytolacaceae	Petiveria alliacea L.	Herb	r	0.54	Q, F
Veiga morta	Lamiaceae	Mentha sp.	Herb	r	0.84	Q, F

RI: Relative importance, T: Tannins, S: Saponins, Q. Quinones, F: Flavonoids, C: Coumarins, TE: Terpenoids A: Alkaloids.

Table 2.  Summary of the Kruskal–Wallis test based on the relative importance (RI), life strategies, habit, and phytocompounds, to study the criteria for the selection and use of medicinal plants in the Caatinga and the Atlantic Forest, northeastern Brazil (mean + standard deviation).

		Caatinga	Atlantic Forest
Life strategies	K	0.74 ± 0.56	0.53 ± 0.44
	r	0.55 ± 0.42	0.69 ± 0.35
K × r		H = 0.7273, P = 0.3938	H = 3.3755, P = 0.0662
Habit	Tree	0.91 ± 0.58	0.46 ± 0.27
	Shrub	0.39 ± 0.42	0.53 ± 0.42
	Herb	0.56 ± 0.41	0.83 ± 0.50
Tree × Shrub		H = 6.7313, P = 0.0095	H = 0.0274, P = 0.8685
Tree × Herb		H = 4.66, P = 0.0309	H = 3.4273, P = 0.0641
Shrub × Herb		H = 2.9593, P = 0.0854	H = 3.6176, P = 0.0572
Phytocompounds	Quantitative	0.68 ± 0.51	0.54 ± 0.42
	Qualitative	0.72 ± 0.54	0.56 ± 0.46
Quantitative × Qualitative		H = 0.0891, P = 0.7654	H = 0.0028, P = 0.9576

Figure 1.  Positive correlations among the species studied related to phytocompounds of the medicinal plants used in the Caatinga and Atlantic Forest, northeastern Brazil.

Table 3.  Summary of the G-test related to the presence of all compound classes from the medicinal plants collected to study the criteria to be used for the selection and use of medicinal plants in the Caatinga and the Atlantic Forest, northeastern Brazil.

		Tannins	Saponins	Quinones	Flavonoids	Coumarins	Terpenoids	Alkaloids
Caatinga	Tree	G = 10.13, P = 0.0015	G = 10.13, P = 0.0015	G = 32.03, P < 0.0001	G = 50.54, P < 0.0001	G = 3.78, P = 0.0518	G = 14.62, P = 0.0001	G = 16.40, P = 0.0015
	Shrub	G = 22.74, P < 0.0001	G = 25.80, P < 0.0001	G = 96.82, P < 0.0001	—	G = 181.43, P < 0.0001	—	G = 25.80, P < 0.0001
	Herb	G = 8.40, P = 0.0038	G = 0.44, P = 0.5028	G = 47.99, P < 0.0001	G = 22.79, P < 0.0001	G = 0.13, P = 0.713	G = 2.89, P = 0.08887	G = 0.19, P = 0.6574
	K	G = 0.64, P = 0.421	G = 3.20, P = 0.0735	G = 31.52, P < 0.0001	G = 27.13, P < 0.0001	G = 4.67, P = 0.0305	G = 25.42, P < 0.0001	G = 0.76, P = 0.3809
	r	G = 14.50, P = 0.0001	G = 29.95, P < 0.0001	G = 54.24, P < 0.0001	G = 30.56, P < 0.0001	G = 0.21, P = 0.6405	—	G = 4.98, P = 0.0256
Atlantic Forest	Tree	G = 1.89, P = 0.169	G = 29.99, P < 0.0001	G = 14.51, P = 0.0001	G = 8.22, P = 0.0041	G = 3.58, P = 0.0583	G = 74.44, P < 0.0001	G = 19.55, P < 0.0001
	Shrub	G = 16.70, P < 0.0001	G = 0.96, P = 0.3252	G = 22.01, P < 0.0001	—	G = 14.38, P = 0.0001	G = 14.50, P = 0.0001	G = 56.00, P < 0.0001
	Herb	G = 9.52, P = 0.002	G = 5.76, P = 0.0163	G = 0.71, P = 0.3968	G = 18.16, P < 0.0001	G = 15.95, P < 0.0001	G = 10.35, P = 0.0013	G = 79.19, P < 0.0001
	K	G = 0.90, P = 0.3402	G = 10.81, P = 0.001	G = 10.32, P = 0.0013	G = 22.28, P < 0.0001	G = 7.70, P = 0.0055	G = 13.52, P = 0.0002	G = 62.63, P < 0.0001
	r	G = 10.98, P = 0.0009	G = 3.15, P = 0.0756	G = 5.13, P = 0.0234	G = 20.92, P < 0.0001	G = 5.13, P = 0.0234	G = 15.51, P < 0.0001	G = 13.52, P = 0.0002

(—): Unable to complete the test due to zero values.