Biopharmaceutical potential of lichens

Figures & data

Figure 1.  (A) Lichen thallus, (B) Vertical section of a foliose lichen thallus, showing (bottom to top) the upper cortex of compact fungal tissue (mycobiont), the algal layer (phycobiont), medulla of loosely interwoven hyphae, and the lower cortex of compacted dark brown fungal tissue (mycobiont).

Figure 2.  Distribution of lichen species in various subdivisions of fungi (Source: Hawksworth, 1988).

Figure 3.  Phylogenetic relationship in phylum Ascomyceta (Source: Tehler & Wedin, 2008). Lichenized texa are marked with thick lines and with names in bold.

Figure 4.  Some common lichen compounds.

Table 1.  Antibacterial activity of lichen species against Gram-positive bacteria.

Lichen	Active compound	MIC values	Test microbes	References
Everniastrum cirrhatum	Atranorin, Protolichesterinic acid, Salazinic acid	2960*,3025^§, 8460^‡	Bacillus cereus	Türk et al., 2003
		0.6^¶		Swathi et al., 2010
Cladonia foliacea	Usnic acid, Atranorin, Fumarprotocetraric acid	3.9*, 15.6^§, 31.2^‡, 1.9^‖,46.8 ^□		Yılmaz et al., 2004
Usnea ghattensis	Usnic acid	0.005-0.01^¶	B. licheniformis,	Behera et al. 2005
		0.005-0.01^¶	B. megaterium
Lasallia pustulata	NS^#	0.78*	B. mycoides	Ranković et al., 2007
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0.062^¶		Ranković & Mišić, 2008
Ochrolechia androgyna,	Lecanoric acid	0.062^¶
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	0.062^¶
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	0.5^¶
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	0.78*^, ¶		Ranković et al., 2010
Lecanora frustulosa	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	1.56*, 0.78^¶		Ranković et al., 2010
Everniastrum cirrhatum	Atranorin, Protolichesterinic acid, Salazinic acid	1480*, 6050^§, 8460^‡	B. subtilis	Türk et al., 2003
Usnea barbata	NS	0.1*^, ¶		Madamombe & Afolayam, 2003
Ramalina farinacea	Usnic acid, Norstictic acid Protocetraric acid	0.026*		Tay et al., 2004
Cladonia foliacea	Usnic acid, Atranorin, Fumarprotocetraric acid	3.9*^,§, 7.8^‡, 0.48^‖, 2.9 ^□		Yılmaz et al., 2004
Usnea ghattensis	Usnic acid	0.005-0.01^¶		Behera et al. 2005
Stereocaulon vesuvianum	Atranol	NS		Khanuja et al., 2007
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0.062^¶		Ranković & Mišić, 2008
Ochrolechia androgyna,	Lecanoric acid	0.062^¶
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	0.062^¶
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	0.5^¶
Lecanora muralis	NS	0.5^†		Karagöz et al., 2009
Cladonia furcata	NS	0.39*
Peltigera polydactyla	NS	0.5^†
Ramalina farinacea	NS	0.5^†
Umbilicaria vellea	NS	0.1^†
Xanthoria elegans	NS	0.5^†
Xanthoparmelia tinctina	NS	0.5^†
Anaptychia ciliaris	NS	0.5^†
Lecanora frustulosa	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	3.12*,1.56^¶		Ranković et al., 2010
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	0.78*^, ¶
Everniastrum cirrhatum	Atranorin, Protolichesterinic acid, Salazinic acid	742*, 3025*, 8460^‡	Listeria monocytogenes	Türk et al., 2003
Ramalina farinacea	Usnic acid, Norstictic acid Protocetraric acid	0.013*		Tay et al., 2004
Cladonia foliacea	Usnic acid, Atranorin, Fumarprotocetraric acid	3.9*^,§,‡, 0.12^‖, 2.9 ^□		Yılmaz et al., 2004
Cladonia crispatula	Depsides, Usnic acid	NS	Mybobacterium smegmatis	Khanuja et al., 2007
Flavoparmelia caperata	NS	0.25^§		Gupta et al., 2007
Heterodermia leucomela	NS	0.5^§
Lecanora flavidorufa	NS	>1.0^§
Leptogium pedicellatum	NS	>1.0^§
Lobaria isidiosa	NS	>1.0^§
Phaeophyscia hispidula	NS	>1.0^§
Rimelia reticulata	NS	0.5^§
Stereocaulon foliolosum	NS	0.5^§
Everniastrum cirrhatum	NS	0.5^§
Everniastrum cirrhatum	Atranorin, Protolichesterinic acid, Salazinic acid	425*, 1215^§,1165^‡	Staphylococcus aureus	Türk et al., 2003
Lichen	Active compound	MIC values	Test microbes	References
Usnea barbata	NS	0.1*^, ¶		Madamombe & Afolayam, 2003
Ramalina farinacea	Usnic acid, Norstictic acid Protocetraric acid	0.013*		Tay et al., 2004
Cladonia foliacea	Usnic acid, Atranorin, Fumarprotocetraric acid	7.8*,3.9^§, 15.6^‡, 0.97^‖, 0.73 ^□		Yılmaz et al., 2004
Usnea ghattensis	Usnic acid	0.005-0.01^¶		Behera et al. 2005
Alectoria sarmentosa	Alectrosarmentin	NS		Khanuja et al., 2007
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0.062^¶		Ranković & Mišić, 2008
Ochrolechia androgyna,	Lecanoric acid	0.125^¶
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	0.125^¶
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	0.5^¶
Anaptychia ciliaris	NS	0.5^†		Karagöz et al., 2009
Peltigera praetextata	NS	0.5^†
Rhizoplaca melanophthalma	NS	0.5^†
Umbilicaria vellea	NS	0.1^†
Xanthoria elegans	NS	0.5^†
Xanthoparmelia tinctina	NS	0.5^†
Xanthoria parietina	NS	0.25^†
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	0.78*^, ¶		Ranković et al., 2010
Lecanora frustulosa	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	1.56*, 0.78^¶
Everniastrum cirrhatum	Atranorin, Protolichesterinic acid, Salazinic acid	0.6^¶		Swathi et al., 2010
Cladia aggregata	Barbatic acid	0.1^‡		Martins et al., 2010
Xanthoparmelia somloensis	NS	0.7-0.9*^, ¶		Zambare et al., 2010
Everniastrum cirrhatum	Atranorin, Protolichesterinic acid, Salazinic acid	1480*, 6050^§, 8460^‡	Streptococcus faecalis	Türk et al., 2003
Ramalina farinacea	Usnic acid, Norstictic acid Protocetraric acid	0.013*		Tay et al., 2004
Cladonia foliacea	Usnic acid, Atranorin, Fumarprotocetraric acid	3.9*,0.97^§,‡,0.24^‖,0.73 ^□		Yılmaz et al., 2004
Xanthoparmelia somloensis	NS	0.7-0.9*^, ¶	S. pyogenes (Group A)	Zambare et al., 2010
		0.7-0.9*^,¶	S. agalactiae (Type B)
Usnea barbata	NS	0.1*^, ¶	Micrococcus viradans	Madamombe & Afolayam, 2003
Everniastrum cirrhatum	Atranorin, Protolichesterinic acid, Salazinic acid	0.4^¶	S. epidermindis	Swathi et al., 2010

*Acetone extract, ^¶Methanol extract, ^§Ethanol extract, ^†Aqueous extract, ^‡Diethyl ether extract, ^‖Chlorofrom extract, ^□Petroleum ether extract, ^#Not specified.

Table 2.  Antibacterial activity of lichen species against Gram-negative bacteria.

Lichen	Active compound	MIC values	Test microbes	References
Cetraria aculeata	Protolichesterinic acid	212*, 607^§, 2330^‡	Aeromonas hydrophila	Türk et al., 2003
Cladonia foliacea	Usnic acid, Atranorin, Fumarprotocetraric acid	3.9*^,§,‡,‖, 46.8 ^□		Yılmaz et al., 2004
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	0.062^¶	E. nterobacter cloaceae	Ranković & Mišić, 2008
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0.062^¶
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	0.5^¶
Ochrolechia androgyna,	Lecanoric acid	0.062^¶
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	0.78*, 1.56^¶		Ranković et al., 2010
Lecanora frustulosa	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	1.56*, 0.78^¶		Ranković et al., 2010
Cetraria aculeata	Protolichesterinic acid	850*, 1215^§, 2330^‡	Escherichia coli	Türk et al., 2003
Usnea barbata	NS^#	0.5*		Madamombe & Afolayam, 2003
Stereocaulon vesuvianum	Atranol	NS		Khanuja et al., 2007
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0.062^¶
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	0.062^¶
Ochrolechia androgyna,	Lecanoric acid	0.125^¶
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	0.125^¶
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	0.5^¶
Anaptychia ciliaris	NS	0.5^†		Karagöz et al., 2009
Peltigera polydactyla	NS	0.5^†
Peltigera praetextata	NS	0.5^†
Ramalina farinacea	NS	0.5^†
Umbilicaria vellea	NS	0.1^†
Xanthoria elegans	NS	0.5^†
Xanthoparmelia tinctina	NS	0.5^†
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	-		Ranković et al., 2010
Lecanora frustulosa	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	-
Everniastrum cirrhatum	Atranorin, Protolichesterinic acid, Salazinic acid	0.7^¶		Swathi et al., 2010
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	0.062^¶	Klebsiella pneumonia	Ranković & Mišić, 2008
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	0.25^¶
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0.031^¶
Ochrolechia androgyna,	Lecanoric acid	0.062^¶
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	0.78*, 1.56^¶		Ranković et al., 2010
Lecanora frustulosa	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	1.56*, 0.78^¶
Cetraria aculeata	Protolichesterinic acid	1480*,3025^§, 8460^‡	Pseudomonas aeruginosa	Türk et al., 2003
Usnea barbata	NS	5.0*		Madamombe & Afolayam, 2003
Everniastrum cirrhatum	Atranorin, Protolichesterinic acid, Salazinic acid	0.8^¶		Swathi et al., 2010
Usnea barbata	NS	5.0*	Proteus vulgaris	Madamombe & Afolayam, 2003
Cetraria aculeata	Protolichesterinic acid	1480*, 6050^§,8460^‡		Türk et al., 2003
Ramalina farinacea	Usnic acid, Norstictic acid Protocetraric acid	0.013*		Tay et al., 2004
Cladonia foliacea	Usnic acid, Atranorin, Fumarprotocetraric acid	3.9*^,§,‡,‖, 46.8 ^□		Yılmaz et al., 2004
Usnea barbata	NS	0.1*^,¶	E. faecalis	Madamombe & Afolayam, 2003
Cetraria islandica	Protolichesterinic acid	NS	Helicobacter pylori	Khanuja et al., 2007

*Acetone extract, ^¶Methanol extract, ^§Ethanol extract, ^†Aqueous extract, ^‡Diethyl ether extract, ^‖Chlorofrom extract, ^□Petroleum ether extract, ^#Not specified.

Table 3.  Antifungal activity of lichen species.

Lichen	Active compound	MIC values	Test microbes	References
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0.25^¶	Aspergillus flavus	Ranković & Mišić, 2008
Ochrolechia androgyna	Lecanoric acid	0.125^¶
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	0.5^¶
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	1.0^¶
Lecanora frustulosa	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	-		Ranković et al., 2010
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	3.12^¶
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0. 25^¶	A. fumigates	Ranković & Mišić, 2008
Ochrolechia androgyna	Lecanoric acid	0.125^¶
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	1.0^¶
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	1.0^¶
Lecanora frustulosa	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	12.5^¶		Ranković et al., 2010
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	3.12^¶
Everniastrum cirrhatum	Atranorin, Salanizic acid Protolichesterinic acid,	NS^#		Swathi et al., 2010
Usnea subfloridans	NS	0.00625^§	A. niger	Ekong et al., 2008
Everniastrum cirrhatum	Atranorin, Salanizic acid Protolichesterinic acid,	NS		Swathi et al., 2010
Melanelia sp	NS	NS	Botryosphaeria dothidea	Oh et al., 2006
Nephromopsis pallescens	NS	NS
Umbilicaria proboscidea	NS	NS
Ramalina conduplicans	NS	NS	Botrytis cinerae	Oh et al., 2006
Lecanora frustulosa	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	12.5*, 3.12^¶		Ranković et al., 2010
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	3.12^¶		Ranković et al., 2010
Evernia prunastri, Hypogymnia physodes, Cladonia portentosa	Lichenic acid	NS		Halama & Van, 2004
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0.125^¶		Ranković & Mišić, 2008
Ochrolechia androgyna,	Lecanoric acid	0.062^¶
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	0.5^¶
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	0.5^¶
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0.125^¶	Candida albicans	Ranković & Mišić, 2008
Ochrolechia androgyna,	Lecanoric acid	0.062^¶
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	0.5^¶
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	0.5^¶
Lecanora frustulosa	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	6.24^¶		Ranković et al., 2010
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	3.12^¶
Parmotrema tinctorum	Lecanoric acid	NS	Cladosporium sphaerospermum	Gomes et al., 2002
Evernia prunastri, Hypogymnia physodes, Cladonia portentosa	Lichenic acid	NS	C. lindemuthianum	Halama & Van, 2004
Nephromopsis asahinae	NS	NS	Diaporthe actinidiae	Oh et al., 2006
Parmelia laevior	NS	NS
Evernia prunastri, Hypogymnia physodes, Cladonia portentosa	Lichenic acid	NS	Fusarium solani	Halama & Van, 2004
Parmelia furfuracea	Usnic acid	NS	Fusarium moniliforme	Khanuja et al., 2007
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0. 25^¶	Fusarium oxysporum	Ranković & Mišić, 2008
Ochrolechia androgyna,	Lecanoric acid	0.125^¶
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	0.5^¶
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	1.0^¶
Lecanora frustulosa	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	12.5^¶
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	3.12^¶
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0. 25^¶	Mucor mucedo	Ranković & Mišić, 2008
Ochrolechia androgyna,	Lecanoric acid	0.125^¶
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	0.5^¶
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	1.0^¶
Lichen	Active compound	MIC values	Test microbes	References
Lecanora frustulosa	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	12.5^¶		Ranković et al., 2010
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	3.12^¶
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0.125^¶	Paecilomyces variotii	Ranković & Mišić, 2008
Ochrolechia androgyna,	Lecanoric acid	0.125^¶
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	0.5^¶
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	0.5^¶
Lecanora frustulosa and	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	6.25^¶		Ranković et al., 2010
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	1.56^¶
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0. 25^¶	Penicillium purpurescens	Ranković & Mišić, 2008
Ochrolechia androgyna,	Lecanoric acid	0.125^¶
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	1.0^¶
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	1.0^¶
Lecanora frustulosa	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	NS		Ranković et al., 2010
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	6.25^¶
Cladonia furcata	Fumarprotocetraric acid	0. 25^¶	Trichoderma harsianum	Ranković & Mišić, 2008
Ochrolechia androgyna,	Lecanoric acid	0.125^¶
Parmelia caperata	Protocetraric acid	0.5^¶
Parmelia conspresa	Stictic acid	0.5^¶
Lecanora frustulosa	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	3.12^§		Ranković et al., 2010
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	6.25^§
Pertusaria sp.	NS	NS	Pestalotiopsis dothidea	Oh et al., 2006
Ramalina sp	NS	NS	Phythium sp.
Ramalina conduplicans	NS	NS	Sclerotium cepivorum
Ramalina sinensis	NS	NS	Rhizoctonia solani
Vulpicida	NS	NS	Rhizoctonia solani
Evernia prunastri, Hypogymnia physodes, Cladonia portentosa	Lichenic acid	NS	Phytophthora infestans	Halama & Van, 2004
Cladonia portentosa	Lichenic acid	NS	P. ultimum
Evernia prunastri, Hypogymnia physodes, Cladonia portentosa	Lichenic acid	NS	Rhizoctonia solani
Evernia prunastri, Hypogymnia physodes, Cladonia portentosa	Lichenic acid	NS	Stagonospora nodorum
Cladonia portentosa	Lichenic acid	NS	Ustilago maydis
Lecanora frustulosa	divaricatic acid, Zeorin	NS	Penicillium verrucosum	Ranković et al., 2010
Parmeliopsis hyperopta	Divaricatic acid, Zeorin	6.25^¶

*Acetone extract, ^¶Methanol extract, ^cEthanol extract, ^#Not specified.

Table 4.  Antioxidant activity of lichen extracts in different solvents.

Lichen	Solvent	DPPH radical scavenging (%)	Reducing power capacity	Superoxide anion radical scavenging activity (%)	Lipid peroxidation inhibition	References
Cetraria islandica	Acetone	35.0	0.042	36.0	NS	Kosanić & Ranković, 2011
Lecanora atra		94.7	0.11	84.5	NS
Parmelia pertusa		40.0	0.038	32.0	NS
Pseudoevernia furfuraceae		87.27	0.08	52.0	NS
Umbilicaria cylindrica		40.0	0.038	30.0	NS
Xanthoparmelia somloensis		76.6	NS^#	NS	85.0	Zambare et al., 2010
Usnea ghattensis	Methanol	89.6	NS	67.0	89.6	Varma et al., 2008
Ramalina conduplicans		85.4	NS	NS	NS	Vinayaka et al., 2009
Bryoria confusa		10.5	0.14	NS	49.6	Heng et al., 2010
Bryoria himalayensis		29.3	0.24	NS	74.6
Bryoria lactinea		23.1	0.21	NS	74.6
Bryoria poeltii		28.5	0.24	NS	82.4
Cetrelia olivetorum		9.5	0.15	NS	NS
Cetraria islandica		20.8	0.28	NS	65.4
Cetraria laevigata		29.7	0.19	NS	79.8
Cetrariopsis wallichiana		21.2	0.15	NS	40.9
Cladia aggregata		21.9	0.25	NS	83.9
Cladonia amaurocraea		32.1	0.21	NS	80.9
Cladonia cervicornis		29.6	0.22	NS	77.1
Cladonia corymbescens		17.1	0.19	NS	78.7
Cladonia macilenta		19.3	0.25	NS	79.3
Cladonia rangiferina		22.9	0.24	NS	78.7
Cladonia squamosissma		25.2	0.22	NS	78.3
Coccocarpia erythroxyli		21.5	0.28	NS	79.0
Evernia mesomorpha		14.2	0.16	NS	80.7
Everniastrum cirrhatum		32.4	0.70	NS	77.2
Everniastrum rhizodendroideum		34.2	0.85	NS	69.8
Hypogymnia hypotrypella		24.8	0.29	NS	80.3
Hypogymnia taiwanalpina		40.9	0.38	NS	82.4
Lethariella cladonioides		26.9	0.32	NS	41.2
Lethariella zahlbruckneri		18.1	0.26	NS	NS
Lobaria isidiophora		31.0	0.28	NS	NS
Lobaria kurokawae		37.3	0.31	NS	72.0
Lobaria orientalis		38.3	0.32	NS	NS
Lobaria retigera		25.3	0.13	NS	NS
Lobaria yunnanensis		29.2	0.16	NS	NS
Menegazzia terebrata		48.6	0.31	NS	85.3
Nephromopsis pallescens		15.2	0.13	NS	NS
Nephromopsis stracheyi		16.6	0.18	NS	NS
Nephromopsis yunnanensis		26.4	0.17	NS	13.5
Oropogon secalonicus		17.8	0.14	NS	NS
Peltigera canina		84.9	0.66	NS	84.9
Peltigera praetextata		87.8	1.04	NS	85.4
Pilophorus aciculare		23.2	0.15	NS	7.0
Ramalina intermedia		53.2	0.36	NS	78.8
Ramalina sinensis		20.6	0.19	NS	NS
Sticta nylanderiana		90.4	1.48	NS	85.5
Tuckneraria ahtii		20.4	0.18	NS	40.7
Tuckneraria pseudocomplicata		34.5	0.30	NS	54.6
Umbilicaria indica		25.4	0.20	NS	15.0
Umbilicaria sinoccidentalis		24.7	0.20	NS	29.5
Umbilicaria thamnodes		17.3	0.15	NS	NS
Umbilicaria yunnana		21.9	0.19	NS	NS
Usnea longissima		25.4	0.19	NS	31.8
Cetraria islandica		49.0	0.058	42.0	NS	Kosanić & Ranković, 2011
Lecanora atra		93.32	0.1	69.0	NS
Parmelia pertusa		48	0.042	60.0	NS
Pseudoevernia furfuraceae		57.88	0.06	50.0	NS
Umbilicaria cylindrica		50.0	0.06	51.0	NS
Parmotrema pseudotinctorum		89.41	0.776	NS	NS	Praveen Kumar et al., 2010b
Xanthoparmelia somloensis		65.0	NS	NS	81.0	Zambare et al., 2010
Cetraria islandica	Water	30.0	0.02	10.0	NS	Kosanić & Ranković, 2011
Lecanora atra		93.23	0.09	55.0	NS
Parmelia pertusa		30.0	0.02	7.31	NS
Pseudoevernia furfuraceae		33.91	0.02	30.0	NS
Umbilicaria cylindrica		40.0	0.02	23.0	NS

^#Not specified.

Table 5.  Antifungal activities of lichen-forming fungi.

Lichen	Test microorganisms	Reference
Melanelia sp.	Botryosphaeria dothidea	Oh et al., 2006
Nephromopsis asahinae	Diaporthe actinidiae
Nephromopsis pallescens	Botryosphaeria dothidea
Parmelia laevior	Diaporthe actinidiae
Pertusaria sp.	Pestalotiopsis dothidea
Ramalina conduplicans	Botrytis cinerae, Sclerotium cepivorum
Ramalina sinensis	Rhizoctonia solani
Ramalina sp.	Phythium sp.
Umbilicaria proboscidea	Botryosphaeria dothidea
Vulpicida	Rhizoctonia solani
Amandinea punctata, Anaptychia palmatula, Anzia opuntiella, Bacidia schweinitzii, Bryoria confuse, Bryoria himalayensis, Caloplaca flavorubescens, Cetrelia braunsiana, Cladonia furcata,Cladonia gracilis, Cladonia metacorallifera, Cladonia coniocraea,Cladonia yunnana, Cladonia macilenta, Cladonia coccifera, Cladonia cervicornis, Cladonia pleurota, Cetrelia braunsiana, Cetrelia japonica, Cladonia squamosissima, Cladonia rangiferina, Cladonia scabriuscula, Everniastrum cirrhatum, Gymnoderma coccocarpum, Heterodermia japonica, Heterodermia hypoleuca, Heterodermia microphylla, Hypogymnia delavayi, Hypogymnia pseudoenteromorpha, Hypogymnia pruinosa, Hypogymnia hengduanensis, Hypotrachyna osseoalba, Icmadophila ericetorum, Lecanora argentata, Megalospora tuberculosa, Melanelia olivacea, Menegazzia terebrata,Menegazzia pseudocyphellata, Myelochroa aurulenta, Myelochroa irrugans, Myelochroa galbina, Myelochroa aurulenta, Myelochroa indica, Myelochroa entotheiochroa, Nephromopsis yunnanensis, Nephromopsis pallescens, Nephromopsis ornate, Nephromopsis asahinae, Nephromopsis pseudocomplicata, Parmelia laevior, Parmelia adaugescens, Parmelia pseudolaevior, Parmelia omphalodes, Parmotrema austrosinense, Parmelia simplicior, Parmotrema ultralucens, Pannaria leucosticte, Phaeophyscia limbata, Phaeophyscia exornatula, Phaeophyscia melanchra, Physcia caesia, Phaeophyscia exornatula,Phaeophyscia hirtella, Physcia stellaris, Physcia stellaris, Phaeophyscia melanchra, Punctelia borreri, Pyxine endochrysina, Pyxine consocians, Ramalina conduplicans, Ramalina exilis, Ramalina intermedia, Ramalina litoralis, Ramalina pertusa, Ramalina sp., Ramalina complanata, Ramalina yasudae, Ramalina almquistii, Ramalina sinensis, Ramalina roesleri, Rimelia clavulifera, Rimelia reticulate, Stereocaulon commixtum, Tephromela atra, Tuckneraria pseudocomplicata, Umbilicaria esculenta, Umbilicaria proboscidea, Umbilicaria kisovana, Umbilicaria yunnana, Usnea longissima, Usnea orientalis, Nephromopsis pallescens, Xanthoparmelia hirosakiensis, Xanthoria elegans	Colletotrichum acutatum	Wei et al., 2008
Heterodermia sp.	Bipolaris coicis, Botryosphareia dothidea, Botrytis cinerea, Cercospora kikuchii, Collectotricum coccodes, Collectotricum gloeosporioides, Collectotricum orbiculare, Fusarium graminearum, Magnaporthe grisea, Pestalotiopsis longiseti, Phomopsis mali, Phomopsis soje, Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum	Hur et al., 2003
Acarospora cervina, Bacidia rubella, Cladonia coniocraea, Cladonia furcata, Cladonia pyxidata, Diploschistes scruposus, Evernia prunastri, Hypogymnia physodes, Lasallia pustulata, Lecania hyaline, Lecanora argentata, Lecidella elaeochroma, Melanelia fuliginosa, Neofuscelia pulla, Parmelia saxatilis, Parmelia sulcata, Parmelina tiliacea, Physconia distorta, Protoparmeliopsis muralis, Ramalina fastigiata, Ramalina pollinaria, Sarcogyne regularis, Umbilicaria hirsute, Xanthoparmelia conspersa, Xanthoparmelia stenophylla	Collectotrichum acutatum C. coccodes C. gloeosporioides	Jeon et al., 2009

Table 6.  Cultivation media for production of bioactive compounds from lichen-forming fungi (Stocker & Hager, 2008).

Lichen-forming fungi	Medium	Bioactive compounds produced
Cetraria islandica	Lilly & Barnett Medium (LB)*, S4%	Protocetraric acid, fumarprotocetraric acid, confumarprotocetraric acids, succin-protocetraric acid (protolichesterinic acid)
Cladonia bellidiflora	Malt Yeast Extract^# Medium (MY)	Bellidiflorin, graciliformin
Lobaria fendleri	Murashige & Skoog^§ Medium (MS)	Gyrophoric and 4-O-methylgyrophoric acid
Solorina crocea	Mix medium*	Solorinic and disolorinic acids, hybocarpone
Haematomma stevensiae	Sabouraud 4% glucose agar (S4)*	Haematommone, russulone
Heterodeamuelleri	LB+Soil extract*, MS, Sabouraud 2% glucose agar (S2)*	Diffractaic acid, barbatic acid
Evernia divaricata	LB+Bark extract*	Divaricatic acid
Umbilicaria mammulata	Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA)	Gyrophoric acid
Lecanora rupicola	LB	Lecanoric acid, sordidone, eugenitol, atranorin (haematommic acid)
Neuropogon sphacelatus	LB	Usnic acid
Xanthoria elegans	LB	Parietin, 1-O-methylparietin, emodin, 1-O-methylemodin, teloschistin, teloschistin monoacetate, 1-O-methylphyscionbisanthrone, physcion-bisanthrone
Cryptothecia rubrocincta	LB 4% erythriol	Chiodectonic acid, confluentic acid
Cladonia furcata	LB 4% ribitol	Chrysophanol
Haematomma persoonii	LB 4% ribitol, 4% sorbitol	Isosphaeric acid, chloroatranorin, sphaerophorin, russulone
Protousnea magellanica	LB, S4%	Usnic acid, sekikaic and subsekikaic acid, 40 -O-demethylsekikaic and 40 -O-demethylsub-sekikaic acids
Ramalina peruviana	Liquid LB	Atranorin, sekikaic acid
Lobaria spathulata	MS	Methylorsellinate, lecanoric and gyrophoric acids, telephoric acid (shikimic acid pathway)
Bunodophoron patagonicu	MS 4% sucrose	Isopatagonic and 2-O-methylisopatagonic acid (depsides), ascomatic and norascomatic acid (dibenzofurans)
Cladonia salmonea	MY	Usnic acid, salazinic acid, rhodocladonic acid
Xanthoparmelia flavescentireagens	MY, MS, LB, PDA	Usnic acid, norlobaridone, loxodin, divaricatic acid
Stereocaulon ramulosum	MY, S4%	Perlatolic acid, stenosporic acid, divaricatic acid

^¶Lilly & Barnett, 1951; ^#Yamamoto, 1990; ^§Murashige & Skoog 1962; *Stocker & Hager, 2008.

Hawksworth, DL. (1988). The fungal partner. In: Galun M, ed. Handbook of Lichennology. vol. I, Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press, pp. 35–38.

 Google Scholar

Tehler A, Wedin M. (2008). Systematics of lichenized fungi. In: Nash III TH, ed. Lichen Biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 336–352.

 Google Scholar

Türk AÖ, Yılmaza M, Kıvanc M, Türk H. (2003). The antimicrobial activity of extracts of the lichen Cetraria aculeata and its protolichesterinic acid constituent. Z Naturforsch C, 58, 850–854.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Swathi D, Suchitha Y, Prashith Kekuda TR, Venugopal TM, Vinayaka KS, Mallikarjun N, Raghavendra HL. (2010). Antimicrobial, antihlmintic and insecticidal activity of a macrolichen Everniastrum cirrhatum (FR.). Hale. Int J Drug Develop Res, 2, 780–789.

 Google Scholar

Yilmaz M, Türk AO, Tay T, Kivanç M. (2004). The antimicrobial activity of extracts of the lichen Cladonia foliacea and its (-)-usnic acid, atranorin, and fumarprotocetraric acid constituents. Z Naturforsch, C, J Biosci, 59, 249–254.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Behera BC, Verma N, Sonone A, Makhija U. (2005). Evaluation of antioxidant potential of the cultured mycobiont of a lichen Usnea ghattensis. Phytother Res, 19, 58–64.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Rankovic B, Misic M, Sukdolak S. (2007). Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of the lichens Lasallia pustulata, Parmelia sulcata, Umbilicaria crustulosa, and Umbilicaria cylindrica. Mikrobiologiia, 76, 817–821.

 PubMedGoogle Scholar

Ranković B, Mišić M. (2008). The antimicrobial activity of the lichen substances of the lichens Cladonia furcata, Ochrolechia androgyna, Parmelia caperata and Parmelia conspresa. Biotechnol Biotechnol Eq, 22, 1013–1016.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ranković B, Kosanić M, Sukdolak S. (2010). Antimicrobial activity of some lichens and their components. In: Anninos P, Rossi M, Pham TD, Falugi C, Bussing A, Koukkou M, eds. Recent Advances in Clinical Medicine. Cambridge, UK: World Scientific and Engineering Academy and Society Press, pp. 279–286.

 Google Scholar

Madamombe IT, Afolayan AJ. (2003). Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of extract from South African Usnea barabata. Pharm Biol, 41, 199–202.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Tay T, Türk AO, Yilmaz M, Türk H, Kivanç M. (2004). Evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of the acetone extract of the lichen Ramalina farinacea and its (+)-usnic acid, norstictic acid, and protocetraric acid constituents. Z Naturforsch, C, J Biosci, 59, 384–388.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Khanuja SPS, Tiruppadiripuliyur RSK, Gupta VK, Srivastava SK, Verma SC, Saikia D, Darokar MP, Shasany AK, Pal A. (2007). Antimicrobial and anticancer properties of methyl-beta-orcinolcarboxylate from lichen (Everniastrum cirrhatum). US Patent No. 0099993A1.

 Google Scholar

Karagöz A, Doğruöz N, Zeybek Z, Aslan A. (2009). Antibacterial activity of some lichen extracts. J Med Plants Res, 3, 1034–1039.

 Google Scholar

Gupta VK, Darokar MP, Saikia D, Pal A, Fatima A, Khanuja SPS. (2007) Antimycobacterial activity of lichens. Pharm Biol, 45, 200–204.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Martins MCB, Gonçalves de Lima MJ, Silva FP, Ximenes EA, Henrique da Silva N, Pereira EC. (2010). Cladia aggregata (lichen) from Brazilian northeast, chemical characterization and antimicrobial activity. Braz Arch Biol Technol, 53, 115–122.

 Google Scholar

Zambare VP, Zambare AV, Christopher LP. (2010). Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of extracts from lichen Xanthoparmelia somloensis, native to the black hills, South Dakota, USA. Int J Med Sci Technol, 3, 46–51.

 Google Scholar

Ekong US, Mgbii AI, Adikwu MU. (2008). Evaluation of the in vitro combination effect of colloidal silver concentrate on the antifungal activity of ethanolic extract of the lichen Usnea subfloridans. Nigerian Annals Nat Sci, 8, 1–5.

 Google Scholar

Oh SO, Jeon HS, Lim KM, Koh YJ, Hur JS. (2006). Antifungal activity of lichen-forming fungi isolated from Korean and Chinese lichen species against plant pathogenic fungi. Plant Pathol J, 22, 381–385.

 Google Scholar

Halama P, Van HC. (2004). Antifungal activity of lichen extracts and lichenic acids. Biocontrol, 49, 95–107.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Gomes AT, Honda NK, Roese FM, Muzzi RM, Marques MR. (2002). Bioactive derivatives obtained from lecanoric acid, a constituent of the lichen Parmotrema tinctorum (Nyl.). Hale (Parmeliaceae). Rev Bras Farmacogn, 12, 74–75.

 Google Scholar

Vinayaka KS, Praveen Kumar SV, Prashith Kekuda TR, Krishnamurthy YL, Mallikarjun N, Swathi D. (2009). Proximate pomposition, antioxidant, anthelmintic and insecticidal activity of a macrolichen Ramalina conduplicans Vain. (Ramalinaceae). Eur J Appl Sci, 1, 40–46.

 Google Scholar

Praveen-Kumar SV, Prashith-Kekuda TR, Vinayaka KS, Sudharshan SJ, Mallikarjun N, Swathi D. (2010b). Studies on antibacterial, anthelmintic and antioxidant activities of a macrolichen Parmotrema pseudotinctorum (des. Abb.). Hale (Parmeliaceae). from Bhadra wildlife sanctuary, Karnataka. Int J PharmTech Res, 2, 1207–1214.

 Google Scholar

Wei X, Jeon HS, Han KS, Koh YJ, Hur JS. (2008). Antifungal activity of lichen-forming fungi against Colletotrichum acutatum on hot pepper. Plant Pathol J, 24, 202–206.

 Google Scholar

Hur JS, Kim HJ, Lim KM, Koh YJ. (2003). Isolation, cultivation, and antifungal activity of a lichen-forming fungus. Plant Pathol J, 19, 75–78.

 Google Scholar

Jeon HS, Lökös L, Han KS, Ryu AA, Kim JA, Koh YJ, Hur JS. (2009). Isolation of lichen-forming fungi from Hungarian lichens and their antifungal activity against fungal pathogens of hot pepper anthracnose. Plant Pathol J, 25, 38–46.

 Google Scholar

Lilly VG, Barnett HL. (1951). Physiology of the Fungi. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.

 Google Scholar

Yamamoto Y. (1990). Studies of Cell Aggregates and the Production of Natural Pigments in Plant Cell Culture. Osaka: Nippon Paint Publication.

 Google Scholar

Murashige T, Skoog F. (1962). A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco tissue cultures. Physiologia Plantarum, 15, 473–494.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar