Spatial/Temporal Variations of Elemental Carbon, Organic Carbon, and Trace Elements in PM₁₀ and the Impact of Land-Use Patterns on Community Air Pollution in Paterson, NJ

Figures & data

Figure 1. The location of air monitoring sites at local commercial, industrial, and mobile source-dominated sites in Paterson (information from NJDEP). The prevailing wind directions (northwestern for winter and spring seasons and southwest for summer and fall seasons) were obtained from meteorological data monitored at the Teterboro Airport weather station and are displayed as red arrows in the figure.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for EC, OC, PM₁₀, and 48 trace elements in PM₁₀ for the study

	n	Average	SD	Min	Median	Max	MDL	>MDL (%)	Percent Nondetected
EC ^a	202	0.68	0.54	0.00	0.58	4.27	0.16	95	1
OC ^a	203	4.40	2.92	0.32	3.84	18.4	0.16	100	0
PM10 ^a	205	16.0	11.2	0.00	13.3	71.8	NA	100	0
Al	199	159	144	0.05	126	686	12.2	93	1
Sb	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	24.5	17.6	2	90
As	199	1.32	1.30	0.03	0.93	11.5	0.8	56	11
Ba	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	290	4.4	42	57
Br	199	4.19	3.29	0.21	3.33	16.7	0.7	96	0
Cd	199	NA	NA	0.00	0.00	8.25	7.3	1	75
Ca	199	231	191	2.16	181	1290	2.1	100	0
Ce	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	381	3.0	27	72
Cs	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	ND	15.3	0	100
Cl	199	294	566	0.10	60.0	4122	2.3	93	5
Cr	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	9.35	0.9	34	55
Co	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	0.57	0.5	1	94
Cu	199	11.7	11.7	0.20	8.32	67.8	0.6	98	0
Eu	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	ND	2.0	0	100
Ga ^b	199	0.73	0.41	0.01	0.99	1.69	1.1	4	44
		0.26	0.35	0.00	0.09	1.69
Au	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	3.30	2.2	1	82
Hf	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	8.33	1.7	16	68
In	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	9.72	9.8	0	87
Ir	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	3.95	3.2	2	78
Fe	199	358	308	8.78	270	1792	0.6	100	0
La	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	639	3.4	28	70
Pb	199	5.37	5.07	0.10	3.75	25.3	2.2	71	2
Mg	199	62.7	48.9	1.20	48.9	185	5.1	88	8
Mn	199	6.26	4.73	0.14	5.17	28.1	0.7	97	0
Hg	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	4.13	3.8	1	77
Mo	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	ND	4.1	0	100
Ni	199	1.69	2.50	0.01	0.93	19.7	0.4	71	5
Nb	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	2.04	2.0	1	73
P	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	100	5.1	40	54
K	199	116	106	2.52	94.9	904	1.7	100	0
Rb ^b	199	0.56	0.30	0.00	0.71	1.69	0.7	11	39
		0.28	0.35	0.00	0.15	1.69
Sa	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	15.3	2.0	14	84
Sc	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	ND	16.6	0	100
Se	199	1.20	1.10	0.01	0.80	5.07	0.8	51	14
Si	199	437	383	7.63	335	1714	5.8	100	0
Ag	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	6.34	6.2	1	87
Na	199	250	308	0.52	137	1719	18.7	90	5
Sr	199	2.08	2.46	0.02	1.46	20.9	0.9	67	6
S	199	1194	935	23.8	884	5372	3.1	100	0
Ta	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	4.75	4.4	1	87
Tb	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	34.4	1.5	39	55
Sn	199	2.60	4.10	ND	ND	23.1	13.1	3	57
Ti	199	15.5	15.8	0.33	12.2	81.4	1.4	79	14
V	199	13.9	12.5	0.61	10.8	68.3	1.2	94	3
W	199	NA	NA	ND	ND	8.33	3.0	9	68
Y ^b	199	0.84	0.41	0.01	1.10	2.01	1.1	11	43
		0.38	0.48	0.00	0.15	2.01
Zn	199	22.5	26.9	1.26	14.6	271	0.7	100	0
Zr ^b	199	3.67	3.52	0.05	2.29	19.3	1.9	56	18
		3.35	3.75	0.00	2.29	19.3
Notes: ^aThe concentration is in units of μg/m^3; the others are ng/m^3; ^bThe element was substituted with two approaches: the upper was replaced with the MDL for each species and the lower was replaced with zero. NA = not applicable, ND = not detected.

Table 2. The summary of meteorological data reported in the two nearby airports for the sampling locations in Paterson and Chester

Location	Meteorological Variable	n	Mean	SD	Median	Min	Q1	Q3	Max
Teterboro Airport (for the Paterson sites)	Temperature (°C)	53	13	4	13	−3	6	18	29
	Wind speed (km/hr)		11.6	4.7	10.6	4.3	8.4	14.6	25.1
	RH (%)		63	14	64	41	53	74	92
	Precipitation (cm)		0.5	1.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.3	5.5
Somerset Airport (for the Chester site)	Temperature (°C)	55	12	4	13	−4	4	19	27
	Wind speed (km/hr)		6.1	4.5	4.7	0.8	3.1	8.0	18.7
	RH (%)		71	13	73	47	61	79	92
	Precipitation (cm)		0.5	1.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.6	5.0
Notes: Q1 = 25 percentile, Q3 = 75 percentile.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics and spatial differences among the four sampling sites in the study

	n	Mean	SD	Median	Min	Max	P ^a	Multiple Comparisons ^b
EC (μg/m^3)
Background	54	0.34	0.17	0.31	0.00	0.82	<.0001	A
Commercial	53	0.91	0.63	0.74	0.18	4.27		B
Industrial	49	0.72	0.52	0.61	0.08	3.12		C
Mobile	46	0.76	0.55	0.65	0.11	3.23		C
OC (μg/m^3)
Background	54	2.82	1.58	2.51	0.54	8.84	<.0001	A
Commercial	53	5.17	3.14	4.44	0.32	17.7		B
Industrial	50	4.91	3.24	4.17	1.07	18.4		B
Mobile	46	4.82	2.89	4.16	1.43	16.0		B
PM10 (μg/m^3)
Background	55	11.3	6.98	10.0	1.01	35.1	<.0001	A
Commercial	53	19.0	12.0	15.5	4.33	71.8		B
Industrial	50	16.8	11.5	14.1	0.00	65.1		B
Mobile	47	17.5	12.5	15.0	1.16	67.7		B
Ca (ng/m^3)
Background	53	131	105	108	3.91	553	<.0001	A
Commercial	52	286	234	219	27.2	1290		B
Industrial	49	263	191	201	2.16	778		B
Mobile	45	249	174	192	34.0	746		B
Cu (ng/m^3)
Background	53	3.35	2.85	2.62	0.46	16.2	<.0001	A
Commercial	52	18.0	12.8	13.1	2.65	67.8		B
Industrial	49	12.3	11.3	8.81	0.20	56.0		C
Mobile	45	13.4	12.0	10.4	2.05	67.7		C
Fe (ng/m^3)
Background	53	137	108	105	11.3	459	<.0001	A
Commercial	52	521	344	427	81.8	1792		B
Industrial	49	396	302	278	8.78	1497		C
Mobile	45	388	291	290	52.6	1573		C
Pb (ng/m^3)
Background	53	2.95	2.76	2.41	0.10	16.2	<.0001	A
Commercial	52	6.58	5.43	4.72	0.78	25.3		B
Industrial	49	6.48	5.67	4.11	0.26	21.2		B
Mobile	45	5.61	5.23	4.18	0.36	20.8		B
Mn (ng/m^3)
Background	53	3.92	2.59	3.38	0.27	12.4	<.0001	A
Commercial	52	7.78	5.69	6.35	0.73	28.1		B
Industrial	49	6.99	4.71	5.59	0.14	22.0		B
Mobile	45	6.47	4.60	5.46	0.63	21.9		B
Ni (ng/m^3)
Background	53	0.78	0.80	0.63	0.03	3.17	0.0002	A
Commercial	52	2.09	2.83	1.33	0.01	19.1		B
Industrial	49	2.01	3.04	1.15	0.12	19.7		B
Mobile	45	1.95	2.60	1.09	0.04	15.8		B
S (ng/m^3)
Background	53	1093	983	805	134	5144	0.3910	A
Commercial	52	1328	1021	915	223	5053		A
Industrial	49	1231	993	877	23.8	5372		A
Mobile	45	1116	681	891	223	2545		A
Ti (ng/m^3)
Background	53	7.31	8.31	4.56	0.33	41.2	<.0001	A
Commercial	52	21.5	18.2	17.8	0.68	81.4		B
Industrial	49	18.3	16.4	14.8	0.68	61.8		B
Mobile	45	15.3	15.3	11.7	0.52	64.7		B
Zn (ng/m^3)
Background	53	10.6	8.18	8.81	1.26	39.5	<.0001	A
Commercial	52	34.0	42.1	20.4	2.88	271		B
Industrial	49	22.7	19.0	15.1	1.99	93.2		C
Mobile	45	22.9	19.9	15.2	2.52	101		C
Notes: ^aDifferences within the four sampling sites were tested using the mixed linear model; ^bThe capital letters (e.g., A, B, and C) suggest a Duncan grouping within the four sampling sites. Different letters indicate the sites are significantly different (P < 0.05); and the same letter indicates the sites are not significantly different. (e.g., EC concentrations are ranked as commercial > industrial = mobile > background).

Figure 2. Seasonal variation (mean ± standard error [SE]) of (a) EC, (b) OC, (c) PM₁₀, (d) Ca, (e) Cu, (f) Fe, (g) Pb, (h) Mn, (i) Ni, (j) S, (k) Ti, and (l) Zn at each sampling site.

Figure 3. The ratios of weekday/weekend mean concentration by each sampling site. The dotted reference line (1.0) indicates the equivalent mean concentration for weekday and weekend measurements.

Table 4. Spearman correlation coefficients among EC, OC, and trace elements in PM₁₀ by each monitoring site

	EC	OC	Cu	Zn	Ni	Pb	Mn	Fe	Ca	Ti	S
Background
EC	1.00	0.70	0.73	0.75	0.64	0.45	0.37	0.42	0.66	0.50	0.54
OC		1.00	0.56	0.58	0.43	0.31	0.40	0.31	0.60	0.52	0.44
Cu			1.00	0.84	0.51	0.46	0.42	0.50	0.71	0.61	0.64
Zn				1.00	0.52	0.50	0.46	0.53	0.72	0.43	0.63
Ni					1.00	0.26	0.10	0.27	0.37	0.37	0.54
Pb						1.00	0.74	0.71	0.42	0.20	0.46
Mn							1.00	0.87	0.54	0.28	0.39
Fe								1.00	0.61	0.40	0.46
Ca									1.00	0.76	0.41
Ti										1.00	0.42
S											1.00
Commercial
EC	1.00	0.78	0.79	0.62	0.55	0.36	0.57	0.54	0.65	0.66	0.58
OC		1.00	0.87	0.69	0.55	0.41	0.62	0.54	0.65	0.68	0.63
Cu			1.00	0.81	0.54	0.56	0.71	0.58	0.73	0.72	0.65
Zn				1.00	0.48	0.58	0.71	0.56	0.69	0.57	0.53
Ni					1.00	0.29	0.32	0.36	0.39	0.34	0.53
Pb						1.00	0.74	0.67	0.53	0.34	0.47
Mn							1.00	0.86	0.79	0.66	0.43
Fe								1.00	0.68	0.63	0.33
Ca									1.00	0.83	0.39
Ti										1.00	0.40
S											1.00
Industrial
EC	1.00	0.81	0.81	0.79	0.66	0.47	0.47	0.50	0.65	0.59	0.67
OC		1.00	0.87	0.86	0.62	0.49	0.54	0.58	0.79	0.70	0.67
Cu			1.00	0.91	0.72	0.43	0.48	0.49	0.76	0.67	0.68
Zn				1.00	0.69	0.48	0.49	0.51	0.76	0.62	0.64
Ni					1.00	0.30	0.30	0.40	0.57	0.52	0.57
Pb						1.00	0.70	0.75	0.42	0.26	0.49
Mn							1.00	0.88	0.63	0.46	0.40
Fe								1.00	0.61	0.51	0.38
Ca									1.00	0.86	0.52
Ti										1.00	0.52
S											1.00
Mobile
EC	1.00	0.72	0.86	0.84	0.77	0.35	0.27	0.20	0.58	0.45	0.64
OC		1.00	0.83	0.72	0.63	0.42	0.39	0.34	0.71	0.70	0.64
Cu			1.00	0.85	0.73	0.48	0.36	0.29	0.74	0.59	0.61
Zn				1.00	0.64	0.54	0.40	0.36	0.68	0.51	0.58
Ni					1.00	0.31	0.27	0.31	0.48	0.43	0.64
Pb						1.00	0.77	0.78	0.50	0.34	0.27
Mn							1.00	0.84	0.55	0.40	0.31
Fe								1.00	0.47	0.49	0.22
Ca									1.00	0.79	0.55
Ti										1.00	0.42
S											1.00
Notes: Values denote a Spearman correlation coefficient (r s). Nonsignificant correlations (P > 0.05) are in italics and strong significant correlations (r s ≥ 0.8) are in bold.

Table 5. Factors identified by dominant species and temporal patterns using an EPA PMF model

Factor	Contribution (%)	Dominant Species	Temporal Patterns	Possible Sources
Commercial
1	25.6	S, PM10	Higher in summer	SO4 ^2− aerosols
2	16.4	Ni, V	Higher in winter	Residual oil combustions
3	16.0	EC, OC	Higher in fall/winter	Vehicle emissions
4	13.2	Ca, Mn, Si, V	Higher in spring during weekday	Airborne soils and road dusts
5	12.2	Al, Si, Ti	Higher in spring/summer	Ti-rich airborne soils
6	9.6	Cu, Fe, Pb	Higher in fall//winter	Industrial emissions
7	4.9	Cl, Na	Higher in winter	Road salts
8	2.2	Zn	Higher in winter during weekday	Industrial emissions II
Industrial
1	33.3	S, PM10	Higher in spring/summer	SO4 ^2− aerosols
2	17.1	Al, Si, Ti	Higher in spring	Ti-rich airborne soils
3	12.6	Ca, Mn, Si, V	Higher in spring/summer during weekday	Airborne soils and road dusts
4	10.5	Ni, V	Higher in winter	Residual oil combustions
5	9.7	EC, OC	Higher in winter during weekday	Vehicle emissions
6	7.5	Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn	Higher in fall/winter	Industrial emissions
7	6.7	Cl, Na	Higher in winter	Road salts
8	2.0	K, S	Spike after July 4, 2006	Firework event
Mobile
1	26.1	EC, OC	Higher in winter	Vehicle emissions
2	22.2	S, PM10	Higher in spring/summer	SO4 ^2− aerosols
3	17.2	Ca, Mn, Si, V	Higher in spring	Airborne soils and road dusts
4	13.6	Cl, Na	Higher in winter	Road salts
5	7.1	Ni, V	Higher in winter	Residual oil combustions
6	7.0	Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn	Higher in fall/winter	Industrial emissions
7	6.7	Al. Si, Ti	Higher in spring/summer	Ti-rich airborne soils
8	0.1	Mg, Na	No pattern	Unknown

Figure 4. The source profiles plotted as concentration and percent contribution vs. chemical species.

Table 6. Final multiple linear regression models for each target species

	Parameter Estimate	Standard Error	Standardized Estimate	P	Model/Partial R ^2
EC (n = 202)				<.0001	0.5061
Intercept	−1.96391	0.25325	—	<.0001	—
Site background	0.00000	—	—	—	—
Commercial	1.57970	0.13744	0.90940	<.0001	0.0976
Industrial	1.35183	0.14936	0.75826	<.0001	0.0985
Mobile	1.43141	0.15004	0.78552	<.0001	0.0525
Precipitation (cm)	−0.29791	0.04895	−0.40929	<.0001	0.1254
Wind speed (km/hr)	−0.02061	0.00371	−0.43354	<.0001	0.0933
RH (%)	0.01407	0.00359	0.25752	0.0001	0.0388
OC (n = 203)				<.0001	0.4172
Intercept	0.68042	0.23199	—	0.0038	—
Site background	0.00000	—	—	—	—
Commercial	1.21078	0.12596	0.82408	<.0001	0.0291
Industrial	1.22578	0.13601	0.81840	<.0001	0.0744
Mobile	1.27665	0.13748	0.82818	<.0001	0.0360
Precipitation (cm)	−0.14953	0.04488	−0.24279	0.0010	0.0948
Wind speed (km/hr)	−0.02494	0.00339	−0.61985	<.0001	0.1728
RH (%)	0.00604	0.00329	0.13088	0.0680	0.0100
PM10 (n = 204)				<.0001	0.2494
Intercept	2.15344	0.10479	—	<.0001	—
Site background	0.00000	—		—	—
Commercial	0.94616	0.15102	0.60227	<.0001	0.0334
Industrial	0.84025	0.16362	0.52104	<.0001	0.0347
Mobile	0.89768	0.16387	0.54868	<.0001	0.0213
Precipitation (cm)	−0.09918	0.04415	−0.15055	0.0258	0.0385
Wind speed (km/hr)	−0.01745	0.00406	−0.40672	<.0001	0.0704
Temperature (°C)	0.01807	0.00531	0.21687	0.0008	0.0511
Ca (n = 199)				<.0001	0.3544
Intercept	5.53666	0.37630	—	<.0001	—
Site background	0.00000	—	—	—	—
Commercial	1.16095	0.20136	0.52441	<.0001	0.0298
Industrial	0.99870	0.21838	0.44236	<.0001	0.0456
Mobile	1.15323	0.21915	0.49600	<.0001	0.0285
Precipitation (cm)	−0.22932	0.07145	−0.24899	0.0016	0.1630
Wind speed (km/hr)	−0.01663	0.00538	−0.27636	0.0023	0.0312
RH (%)	−0.01415	0.00541	−0.20280	0.0097	0.0420
Temperature (°C)	0.01463	0.00712	0.12589	0.0413	0.0143
Cu (n = 199)				<.0001	0.6363
Intercept	0.24394	0.30491	—	0.4247	—
Site background	0.00000	—	—	—	—
Commercial	2.63259	0.16280	1.09860	<.0001	0.1598
Industrial	2.17682	0.17631	0.89077	<.0001	0.1728
Mobile	2.35243	0.17757	0.93472	<.0001	0.0883
Precipitation (cm)	−0.28281	0.05784	−0.28368	<.0001	0.0255
Wind speed (km/hr)	−0.03159	0.00436	−0.48495	<.0001	0.1698
RH (%)	0.01396	0.00429	0.18484	0.0013	0.0201
Fe (n = 199)				<.0001	0.5233
Intercept	4.70682	0.12161	—	<.0001	—
Site background	0.00000	—	—	—	—
Commercial	2.05143	0.17395	0.91350	<.0001	0.1200
Industrial	1.68589	0.18849	0.73615	<.0001	0.1354
Mobile	1.81846	0.18972	0.77102	<.0001	0.0654
Precipitation (cm)	−0.24849	0.05047	−0.26598	<.0001	0.1180
Wind speed (km/hr)	−0.02509	0.00463	−0.41090	<.0001	0.0728
Temperature (°C)	0.01306	0.00605	0.11075	0.0323	0.0115
Pb (n = 199)				<.0001	0.3384
Intercept	0.34541	0.37924	—	0.3636	—
Site background	0.00000	—	—	—	—
Commercial	1.54470	0.20419	0.70844	<.0001	0.0363
Industrial	1.55550	0.22278	0.69492	<.0001	0.0343
Mobile	1.38700	0.22152	0.60128	<.0001	0.0430
Precipitation (cm)	−0.28353	0.07154	−0.31329	0.0001	0.1155
Wind speed (km/hr)	−0.02723	0.00545	−0.45506	<.0001	0.0969
RH (%)	0.01001	0.00532	0.14550	0.0616	0.0124
Mn (n = 199)				<.0001	0.3961
Intercept	1.78709	0.32230	—	<.0001	—
Site background	0.00000	—	—	—	—
Commercial	1.00480	0.17246	0.51251	<.0001	0.0335
Industrial	0.88712	0.18704	0.44370	<.0001	0.0295
Mobile	0.92974	0.18770	0.45154	<.0001	0.0138
Precipitation (cm)	−0.28049	0.06119	−0.34389	<.0001	0.2194
Wind speed (km/hr)	−0.01712	0.00461	−0.32113	0.0003	0.0437
RH (%)	−0.00983	0.00464	−0.15905	0.0353	0.0257
Temperature (°C)	0.02019	0.00610	0.19617	0.0011	0.0305
Ni (n = 199)				<.0001	0.3348
Intercept	−3.03091	0.48806	—	<.0001	—
Site background	0.00000	—	—	—	—
Commercial	2.04895	0.26059	0.72240	<.0001	0.0204
Industrial	2.09006	0.28222	0.72258	<.0001	0.0918
Mobile	2.10647	0.28424	0.70714	<.0001	0.0309
Precipitation (cm)	−0.30243	0.09258	−0.25630	0.0013	0.0711
Wind speed (km/hr)	−0.03740	0.00697	−0.48498	<.0001	0.0997
RH (%)	0.03710	0.00686	0.41500	<.0001	0.0210
S (n = 199)				<.0001	0.3089
Intercept	5.04391	0.31195	—	<.0001	—
Site background	0.00000	—	—	—	—
Commercial	0.70145	0.16692	0.39545	<.0001	0.0121
Industrial	0.61173	0.18103	0.33818	0.0009	0.0112
Mobile	0.70812	0.18167	0.38012	0.0001	0.0119
Precipitation (cm)	−0.32302	0.05923	−0.43774	<.0001	0.0779
Wind speed (km/hr)	−0.01397	0.00446	−0.28963	0.0020	0.0355
RH (%)	0.02196	0.00449	0.39276	<.0001	0.0814
Temperature (°C)	0.02579	0.00591	0.27692	<.0001	0.0790
Ti (n = 199)				<.0001	0.4237
Intercept	4.02758	0.43570	—	<.0001	—
Site background	0.00000	—	—	—	—
Commercial	2.06621	0.27519	0.64033	<.0001	0.0339
Industrial	1.84979	0.29709	0.56213	<.0001	0.0228
Mobile	1.80603	0.29893	0.53292	<.0001	0.1096
Wind speed (km/hr)	−0.04766	0.00696	−0.54326	<.0001	0.0281
RH (%)	−0.04089	0.00604	−0.40209	<.0001	0.1830
Temperature (°C)	0.03596	0.00978	0.21224	0.0003	0.0463
Zn (n = 199)				<.0001	0.4992
Intercept	1.42114	0.31392	—	<.0001	—
Site background	0.00000	—	—	—	—
Commercial	1.83579	0.16798	0.87545	<.0001	0.0781
Industrial	1.62303	0.18218	0.75896	<.0001	0.0719
Mobile	1.63705	0.18282	0.74333	<.0001	0.0331
Precipitation (cm)	−0.34350	0.05960	−0.39375	<.0001	0.1522
Wind speed (km/hr)	−0.02782	0.00449	−0.48796	<.0001	0.1192
RH (%)	0.01654	0.00452	0.25024	0.0003	0.0265
Temperature	−0.01571	0.00594	−0.14271	0.0089	0.0183