Investigation of the effects of a high fish diet on inflammatory cytokines, blood pressure, and lipids in healthy older Australians

Figures & data

Table 1 Composition of the provided study foods

	Energy (kJ)	Protein (g)	Total fat (g)	Saturated fat (g)	Sodium (mg)	EPA (mg)	DHA (mg)	EPA + DHA (mg)	DPA (mg)
FISH: Weeks 1 and 2
Atlantic salmon-skin off, 145 g^a	1,056	32.0	13.6	3.2	59	945	1,035	1,980	–
Atlantic salmon-skin off, 145 g^a	1,056	32.0	13.6	3.2	59	945	1,035	1,980	–
Ocean trout-skin on, 150 g^a	1,630	28.2	30.3	7.8	41	1,210	2,200	3,430	–
Ocean trout-skin on, 150 g^a	1,630	28.2	30.3	7.8	41	1,210	2,200	3,430	–
Flavored canned salmon, 95 g^a	559	13.3	6.8	1.0	271	114	233	347	–
Flavored canned tuna, 95 g^a	537	17.3	6.3	0.8	326	17	148	164	–
Canned sardines in spring water, 110 g^a	710	13.7	12.5	3.4	180	750	1,120	1,880	–
Canned pink salmon, 105 g pack^a	484	18.6	4.9	1.2	280	502	683	1,185	–
FISH: Week 3 and 4
Marinated Atlantic salmon-skin off, 145 g^a	1,380	27.1	23.5	5.4	312	1,300	1,530	2,830	–
Marinated Atlantic salmon-skin off, 145 g^a	1,380	27.1	23.5	5.4	312	1,300	1,530	2,830	–
Canned red salmon, 105 g^a	557	18.4	6.9	1.5	324	494	762	1,256	–
Flavored canned salmon, 95 g^a	559	13.3	6.8	1.0	271	114	233	347	–
Tuna slices in spring water, 105 g^a	397	21.7	0.7	0.2	185	29	215	244	–
Lightly seasoned frozen fish fillets, 200 g^a	1,340	29.2	14.8	2.0	260	200	500	700	–
Canned tuna in spring water, 95 g^a	227	12.1	0.5	0.3	139	0.2	20.0	147	–
MEAT: Weeks 1 and 2
Beef scotch fillet, lean, raw, 125 g^b	758.75	29	9.375	2.875	68.75	30	5	35	33.75
Beef scotch fillet, lean, raw, 125 g^b	758.75	29	9.375	2.875	68.75	30	5	35	33.75
Frozen veal schnitzel, 140 g^c	1,289	18.06	14.56	4.48	882
Lamb rump, lean, raw, 125 g^b	677.5	28.125	5.375	1.75	81.25	23.8	13	36.8	46.3
Beef scotch fillet, lean, raw, 125 g^b	758.75	29	9.375	2.875	68.75	30	5	35	33.75
Ham deli meat, 50 g^c	184	7.9	1.5	0.3	293
Ham deli meat, 50 g^c	184	7.9	1.5	0.3	293
MEAT: Week 3 and 4
Beef mince, 10% fat, 150 g^b	1,112	30.15	16.2	5.85	96	141	31.5	172.5	217.5
Beef mince, 10% fat, 150 g^b	1,112	30.15	16.2	5.85	96	141	31.5	172.5	217.5
Lamb rump, lean, raw, 125 g^b	677.5	28.125	5.375	1.75	81.25	23.8	13	36.8	46.3
Beef scotch fillet, lean, raw, 125 g^b	758.75	29	9.375	2.875	68.75	30	5	35	33.75
Pork loin chop, 140 g^b	440	22.2	1.7	0.6	66	0	6	6	9
Frozen beef satay convenience meal, 375 g^c	2,378	25.9	20.6	8.6	675
Beef scotch fillet, lean, raw, 125 g^b	758.75	29	9.375	2.875	68.75	30	5	35	33.75
Pork loin chop, 140 g^b	440	22.2	1.7	0.6	66	0	6	6	9

^aAnalyses were conducted by AsureQuality Limited (Auckland New Zealand). All samples submitted for analyses were composite samples from a minimum of three production dates. Samples were homogenized with stainless steel cutters, packed in plastic bags protected from light and frozen before being shipped to the laboratory. All samples were analyzed in duplicates. Reagent blank (same procedure but omitting the sample), spikes and standard reference materials were prepared as per the laboratory's standard operating procedure. The laboratory contracted to undertake the analyses was accredited and complied to the requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories ISO/IEC 17025:2005.

^bNutrient profiles were obtained from AUSNUT 2007 or ^c nutrient information panel of actual products.

Table 2 Baseline and 8-week measurements amongst the study population

	Baseline				Week 8
	Control^a		Fish^a		Control^a		Fish^a
	n		n		n		n
Weight (kg)	37	73.8±2.1	43	75.7±2.2	37	73.6±2.0	43	75.8±2.1
BMI (kg/m^2)	37	26.4±0.6	43	26.5±0.6	37	26.3±0.6	43	26.5±0.6
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)	37	126±2	43	126±2	37	126±3	43	124±3
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)	37	67±1	43	69±1	37	66±1	43	68±2
CRP (mg/L)^b	37	0.8 (0.5, 1.3)	43	1.17 (0.8, 1.8)	37	0.8 (0.5, 1.3)	43	1.0 (0.7, 1.5)
IL-1β (pg/ml)^b,c	15	6.9 (4.7, 10.1)	18	8.11 (5.3, 12.4)	15	7.7 (6.2, 9.4)	18	7.3 (6.0, 8.8)
IL-6 (pg/ml)^b,c	10	7.9 (5.4, 11.4)	11	7.21 (5.4, 9.7)	10	7.5 (5.9, 9.6)	11	7.7 ( 5.2, 11.4)
Total cholesterol (mmol/L)	37	5.5±0.2	43	5.5±0.1	37	5.4±0.2	43	5.6±0.1
HDL-C (mmol/L)	37	1.6±0.1	43	1.7±0.1	37	1.7±0.1	43	1.8±0.1
LDL-C (mmol/L)	37	3.3±0.1	43	3.2±0.1	37	3.2±0.1	43	3.4±0.1
Triacylglycerol (mmol/L)	37	1.4±0.1	43	1.1±0.1	37	1.3±0.1	43	1.0±0.1

BMI: body mass index; CRP: C-reactive protein; IL-1β: interlukin-1 beta; IL-6: interleukin 6; HDL-C: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.

^aData reported as mean±standard error of the mean.

^bData reported as geometric means (95% CI).

^cValues only reported if above limit of detection.

Table 3 Mean (SD) daily study meat and fish consumed and key nutrient intakes from these foods at week 1 and week 7 of the study

	Gram (g)		Energy (kJ)		Protein (g)		Total fat (g)		Saturated fat (g)		VLCN n-3 PUFA
FISH	Week 1	Week 7	Week 1	Week 7	Week 1	Week 7	Week 1	Week 7	Week 1	Week 7	Week 1	Week 7
Study fish consumed	121 (45)	124 (47)	920 (520)	881 (461)	23 (10)	24 (11)	13 (10)	11 (8)	3.1 (2.7)	2.6 (2.4)	1,752 (1,262)	1,399 (1,244)
Non-study meat consumed^a	149 (92)	153 (76)	1,102 (775)	1,182 (688)	36 (26)	31 (17)	12 (11)	13 (11)	4.3 (4.7)	5.2 (5.7)	86 (119)	50 (71)
CONTROL
Study meat consumed	123 (78)	127 (65)	857 (580)	987 (505)	30 (18)	33 (15)	8 (6)	9 (6)	2.8 (2.7)	3.4 (2.6)	62 (62)	80 (60)
Non-study meat consumed^b	142 (54)	142 (18)	1,074 (504)	1,077 (774)	31 (14)	26 (20)	11 (8)	13 (11)	4.4 (4.1)	4.9 (4.9)	65 (78)	195 (486)

SD: Standard deviation; VLCN: very long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.

^aNo other fish was consumed, therefore this intake represents intake of meat/chicken/pork at the appropriate time points.

^bOnly one serving of fish was consumed by one participant during week 1 and week 7 of the study, therefore this intake represents additional intake of meat/chicken/pork at the appropriate time points.

Table 4 Mean (±SEM) percentage concentrations of fatty acids measured in erythrocytes at baseline and after 8-weeks consumption of a CONTROL (n=37) or FISH (n=43) diet

	Group	Baseline (%)	Week 8 (%)
Total saturated fatty acids	Control	44.2±0.2	44.1±0.3
	Fish	44.1±0.2	44.8±0.2
Total n-6 fatty acids	Control	27.0±0.4	26.6±0.4
	Fish	27.2±0.4	25.5±0.3^†
Arachidonic acid	Control	12.0±0.3	12.4±0.2
	Fish	12.5±0.2	11.8±0.2*
Total monounsaturated fatty acids	Control	18.4±0.2	17.8±0.2
	Fish	18.2±0.2	17.7±0.2
Total n-3 fatty acids	Control	9.7±0.4	8.4±0.3
	Fish	9.3±0.3	10.4±0.2^‡
Alpha linoleic acid	Control	0.147±0.008	0.149±0.007
	Fish	0.126±0.008	0.136±0.008
Linoleic acid	Control	10.3±0.2	9.8±0.2
	Fish	10.2±0.2	9.8±0.2
VLCN n-3 PUFA	Control	9.5±0.4	8.2±0.3
	Fish	9.2±0.3	10.2±0.2^‡
EPA	Control	1.5±0.1	1.1±0.3
	Fish	1.3±0.1	1.7±0.1^‡
DPA	Control	3.0±0.1	2.8±0.1
	Fish	2.8±0.1	2.8±0.1
DHA	Control	5.0±0.2	4.4±0.2
	Fish	5.0±0.2	5.7±0.1^‡

SEM: standard error of the mean; VLCN n-3 PUFA: very long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid; DPA: docosapentaenoic acid; DHA: docosahexanoic acid.

*p<0.05, ^† p<0.01, ^‡ p<0.001 between groups (analyzed using univariate analysis of variance, adjusting for baseline values).

Fig. 1 Mean adjusted changes in CRP over 8-weeks between CONTROL and FISH Group×CRP strata interaction (p=0.017) using the Sidak test for multiple comparisons.

*p=0.046 between high and low CRP in CONTROL.