Air pollution from household solid fuel combustion in India: an overview of exposure and health related information to inform health research priorities

Figures & data

Table 1. Listing of exposure studies related to solid fuel combustion in India

SNO	Reference, location	Region/season	Fuel	Stove type	Sampling duration	Levels of pollutants reported
1	Aggarwal et al 26, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, Urban	West/NS	Wood/dung/charcoal	Traditional	Half-an-hour during cooking	TSP: 7203–26147 (µg/m^3) PAH (BaP): 1270–8248 (ng/m^3)
2	Smith et al 16, Anand, Gujarat, Rural	West/winter	Wood	Traditional	Meal duration	TSP: 6400(µg/m^3) BaP: 4100 (ng/ m^3)
				Improved	Meal duration	TSP: 4600(g/m^3) BaP: 2400 (ng/ m^3)
3	Ramakrishna 27, Kerala, Karnataka, Haryana. Rural	North/NS	Wood	Traditional	Meal duration	TSP: 3200–3300(g/m^3) CO: 7–19 (mg/ m^3)
				Improved	Meal duration	TSP: 1700– 2900(g/m^3) CO: 5.7–8.9 (mg/ m^3)
4	Menon et al 28, Islamnagar, Padaria, Ariyur, Perambia, Adampur villages, Rural	North/NS	Wood	Traditional	NA	TSP: 2000–5000(g/m^3) CO: 30.9–74.4 (mg/ m^3)
5	Norboo et al 29, Chuchot Sharma village, Ladakh District, Jammu & Kashmir State, Rural	North/winter, summer	Wood	Traditional	Meal duration	CO: 12–29.8 (mg/ m^3)
6	Saksena et al 12, Pauri District, Uttar Pradesh. Rural	North/winter, summer	Wood	Traditional	Meal duration	TSP: 5600(µg/m^3) CO: 21 (mg/ m^3)
7	Raiyani et al 30, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, Urban	West/NS	Wood/dung/charcoal	Traditional	Meal duration	TSP: 1190–3470(µg/m^3) BaP: 38–410 (ng/ m^3)
8	Smith et al 31, Pune, Maharashtra, Urban	West/NS	Crop residue, wood	Traditional	Meal duration	PM10: 900–1100(µg/m^3)
9	TERI 32, Tehri District, Uttar Pradesh	North/NS	Wood	Traditional	Meal duration	PM5: 850–1460(µg/m^3)
10	Mandal et al 33, Delhi, Urban	North; NS	Wood	Traditional	4 hours	TSP: 646(µg/m^3)
11	Balakrishnan et al 13, four districts in Tamil Nadu, Rural	South/summer	Wood/crop residue/wood chips	Traditional	1–2 hours during cooking 24 hours	PM4: 1307–1535(g/m^3) PM4: 847–1327(g/m^3)
12	Saksena et al 34, New Delhi, Urban	North/winter	Wood	Traditional	Meal duration	PM5: 1204(µg/m^3) CO: 13.7 (mg/ m^3)
13	Balakrishnan et al 14, Nizamabad, Warangal, Rengareddy Districts, Andhra Pradesh, Rural	South/summer	Wood/dung/crop residues	Traditional	22–24 hours	PM4: 431–467(µg/m^3) PM4: 297–666(µg/m^3) PM4: 215–357(µg/m^3)
14	Bhargava et al 35. (2004), Malihabad, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, Rural	North/winter, summer	Wood/cow dung	Traditional	1-hour during cooking	BaP: 0.5–1.86 (%)
15	Sinha et al 36, Gujarat, Rural	West/NS	Wood, dung	NS	45 min to 1-hour during cooking	Benzene: 45–114.3(µg/m^3) Toluene: 2–8.5(µg/m^3)
16	Smith et al 15, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rural	Central/monsoon, winter, summer	Wood	Traditional	48 hours	PM2.5: 520–1250 (g/m^3) CO: 9.02–12.4 (mg/ m^3)
		Central/Monsoon, winter, summer	Wood	Improved	48 hours	PM2.5: 330–940(g/m^3) CO: 6.17–7.6 (mg/ m^3)
17	Kumar et al 37, Dallupura, Nizamuddin, Ashok Vihar, Shahdara, ITO, Janakpuri, Siri Fort, Shahzada Bagh, Jagatpur – Delhi, Urban	North/all seasons	Coal, wood, kerosene, cow dung	NS	6 hours	SPM: 290–1200(µg/m^3)
18	Kumar et al 38, Ashok Vihar, Delhi, Urban	North/summer	Wood, dung, gas	NS	6–8 hours	SPM: 960(µg/m^3)

Note: NS, Not specified; GM, Geometric mean; TSP, Total suspended particulates; PM, Particulate matter; SPM, Suspended particulate matter; BaP, Benzo(a)pyrene

Table 2. Listing of major health studies related to solid fuel combustion in India

Outcome	Study reference	Outcome details	Exposure	Reported range of OR/RR
Low birth weight	Mavalankar et al 39, Case–control	Hospital births; birth weight measure not reported; term and preterm estimates	Cooking with solid fuels	1.23 ( 1.01–1.5)
	Tielsch et al 40, Cohort	Trained FWs – scales within 72 hours; term and preterm estimates	Cooking with wood/dung versus gas/kerosene	1.7(0.92–3.10)
	Pope et al 19 Meta analysis	Five studies were included in the meta-analysis for generation of the overall pooled odds ratio	Cooking with solid fuels	1.38 (1.25–1.52)
Still birth	Mavalankar et al 41, Case–control	Hospital still birth (n=451). Early neonatal death (n=160) (within 1 week). Controls: surviving >7 days – same hospital	Cooking with solid fuels	1.5 (1.04–2.17)
	Mishra et al 42, Cross-sectional survey	‘Dead baby after 28th week of pregnancy.’ Complete birth histories from Nationally representative sample	Cooking with wood/dung versus gas/electricity	1.44 (1.05–1.98)
	Tielsch et al 40, Cohort	Delivery after 28 weeks in which fetus born dead. Excluded early neonatal deaths	Cooking with wood/dung versus gas/kerosene	1.34 (0.76–2.36)
ALRI	Mishra et al 42, Cross-sectional	Self-reported symptoms/DHS surveys	Cooking with solid fuels and exposure to tobacco smoke	1.58 (1.28–1.95)
	Dherani et al 18, Meta-analysis	24 studies included in the meta-analysis for generation of the overall pooled odds ratio for ALRI in children under five years	Cooking with solid fuels and exposure to tobacco smoke	1.78 ( 1.45–2.18)
Lung cancer	Gupta et al 43, Case–Control	Cancer of the lung, trachea, bronchus as confirmed by histology; clinical diagnosis with radiology	Cooking with solid fuels	1.52 (0.33–6.98)
	Sapkota et al 21, Case–Control			3.76 (1.64–8.63)
	Hosgood et al 44, Meta-analysis	25 studies included in the meta-analysis for generation of the overall pooled OR for Lung cancer	Coal use	2.15 (1.61–2.89)
COPD	Behera et al 45, Descriptive study	COPD as defined clinically	Cooking with solid fuels	3.04 (2.15-4.31)
	Qureshi et al 46, Case–Control	COPD as defined clinically		2.10 (1.50 to 2.94)
	Kurmi et al 20, Systematic review and Meta-analysis	12 studies were included in the meta-analysis for generation of the overall pooled OR		2.80 (1.85–4.0)
Cataract	Mohan et al 47, Case–Control	1441 patients with age-related cataracts and 549 controls	Cooking with solid fuels	1.61 (1.02–2.50)
	Zodpey et al 48, Case–control	223 clinically diagnosed cataract women and equal number of age-matched controls		2.37 (1.44–4.13)
	Pokhrel et al 49, Case–control	Cases (n=206) were women patients, aged 35–75 years with confirmed cataracts. Controls (n=203), frequency matched by age, were patients attending the refractive error clinic at the same hospital		1.90 (1.00–3.61)
Blindness	Mishra et al 50, Cross-sectional	National Family Health Survey (NFHS) questionnaire data	Cooking with solid fuels	1.32 (1.16–1.50)
Tuberculosis	Gupta et al 51, Case–control	Tuberculosis	Cooking with solid fuels	2.54 (1.07–6.04)
	Mishra et al 52, Cross-sectional	National Family Health Survey (NFHS) questionnaire data		2.58 (1.98–3.37)
	Shetty et al53, Case–control	Cases – new diagnoses of pulmonary TB. Age- and sex-matched controls, one for each case (n=189)		0.90 (0.46–1.76)
	Kolappan et al 54, Case–control	Definition of cases either by sputum smear or culture examination. Five age-sex matched controls per case		1.7 (1–2.9)
	Lakshmi et al 55, Case–control	Physician-diagnosed cases of sputum positive pulmonary tuberculosis and matched controls per case		3.14(1.15–8.56)
	Behera et al 56, Case–control	Sputum positive tuberculosis (TB) and 109 healthy controls		0.60 (0.22–1.63)

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