Embodied health: the effects of a mind–body course for medical students

Figures & data

Table 1 Course themes and assigned readings

Week	Theme	Reading assigned
1	Introduction	No reading assigned.
2	Effects of slow breath on physiology	Bernardi L, Gabutti A, Porta C, Spicuzza L. Slow breathing reduces chemoreflex response to hypoxia and hypercapnia, and increases baroreflex sensitivity. J Hypertens 2001; 19: 2221–29.
		Joseph CN, Porta C, Casucci G, et al. Slow breathing improves arterial baroreflex sensitivity and decreases blood pressure in essential hypertension. Hypertension. 2005; 46: 714–18.
3	Resistance breathing	Brown RP, Gerbarg PL. Sudarsahn kriya yogic breathing in the treatment of stress, anxiety, and depression: Part I—neurophysiologic model. J Altern Complem Med. 2005; 11: 189–201.
		Jerath R, Edry JW, Barnes VA, Jerath V. Physiology of long pranayamic breathing: Neural respiratory elements may provide a mechanism that explains how slow deep breathing shifts the autonomic nervous system. Med Hypotheses. 2006; 67: 566–71.
4	Yoga and GABA	Streeter CC, Whitfield TH, Owen L, et al. Effects of yoga versus walking on mood, anxiety, and brain GABA levels: A randomized controlled MRS study. J Altern Complem Med. 2010; 16:1–8.
		Streeter CC, Jensen JE, Perlmutter RM, et al. Yoga asana sessions increase brain GABA levels: a pilot study. J Altern Complem Med. 2007; 13:419–26.
5	The relaxation response	Beary JF, Benson H. A simple psychophysiologic technique which elicits the hypometabolic changes of the relaxation response. Psychosom Med. 1974; 36:115–20.
		Dusek JA, Otu HH, Wohlhueter AL, et al. Genomic counter-stress changes induced by the relaxation response. PLoS ONE 3(7):e2576.
6	Lower back pain	Saper RB, Sherman KJ, Cullum-Dugan D, et al. Yoga for chronic low back pain in a predominantly minority population: a randomized controlled trial. Altern Ther Health Med. 2009; 15:18–27.
7	Yoga and PTSD	Emerson D, Sharma R, Chaudhry S, Turner J. Trauma-sensitive yoga: principles, practice and research. Int J Yoga Therap. 2009; 19:123–28.
		van der Kolk BA. Clinical implications of neuroscience research in PTSD. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006; 1071:277–93.
8	Mindfulness and chronic pain	Grant JA, Courtemanche J, Duerden EG, Duncan GH, Rainville P. Cortical thickness and pain sensitivity in zen meditators. Emotion. 2010; 10:43–53.
		Kabat-Zinn J. An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: theoretical considerations and preliminary results. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1982; 4:33–47.
		Zeidan F, Martucci KT, Kraft RA, et al. Brain mechanisms supporting the modulation of pain by mindfulness meditation. J Neurosci. 2011; 31:5540-8.
9	Mindfulness for the mind	Hölzel1 BK, Lazar SW, Gard T, et al. How does mindfulness meditation work? Proposing mechanisms of action from a conceptual and neural perspective. Pers Psych Sci. 2011; 6:537–59.
10	The placebo effect	Benedetti F, Pollo A, Lopiano L, et al. Conscious expectation and unconscious conditioning in analgesic, motor and hormonal placebo/nocebo responses. J Neurosci. 2003; 23:4315–23.
		Colloca L, Benedetti F. Placebos and painkillers: Is mind as real as matter? Nat Rev Neurosci. 2005; 6:545–52.
11	Course summary	No reading assigned.

Table 2 Mean change in scores for different measures

Measure	Mean change score	SD	p	Cohen's d
Cohen's Perceived Stress Scale	−0.05	0.62	0.70	0.14
Self-Regulation Questionnaire	0.13	0.20	0.003	−0.41
Jefferson's Scale of Physician Empathy	0.11	0.50	0.30	−0.31
Self-Compassion Scale	0.28	0.61	0.04	−0.55

Table 3 Theme and number of essays mentioning the theme

Theme	Number of essays (%)
Reconnection between mind and body	18 (75)
Community in a competitive environment	4 (17)
Positive effects of increased mindfulness	16 (67)
Increased ability to share CAM with patients	19 (79)
Increased ability to manage stress	19 (79)

CAM, complementary and alternative medicine.