An emerging interface between life science and nanotechnology: present status and prospects of reproductive healthcare aided by nano-biotechnology

Figures & data

Table 1 Biological nanoscales with respective natural as well as manmade things in that range

Size range	Natural things	Synthetic things in that range
5,000,000 nm	Ants	Head of a pin (2 mm), grain of salt
2,00,000 nm	Duet mite	Sand grains
10,000–1,00,000 nm	Human hair, pollen, cancer cell	Sheet of paper
10,000–20,000 nm	Fly ash, kidney excretions	Polymeric nanoparticles
1,000–10,000 nm	Cell	MEMS devices
2,000–2,500 nm	E. coli, red blood cells	Nanomedicine
100–200 nm	Virus (T4 bacteriophage)	X-ray lens, STM tip
2–20 nm	Ribosome	QDs, nanopores, nanoshells
10 nm	ATP synthatase, nucleic acids (tRNA)	Computer chip, single transistor
4–10 nm	Proteins (chymotrypsin), antibody, large molecules	Dendrimers, plastics
1–2 nm	DNA, glucose, small molecules	Nanotubes, QDs
0.1 nm	Atom, water	–

nm, nanometer; mm, millimeter; QDs: quantum dot.

Fig. 1 Trajectory of nanotechnology advancement over the years.

Table 2 Examples of biocompatible nanomaterials promising for healthcare application

S. No.	Biocompatible nanoparticles (NPs)	Respective nanomedicine	Biomedical applications	Key properties	References
Metallic
1.	Iron oxide	Polymer nanocomposite Fe3O4–Cu–SMA–DMSO	Male and female long-term contraception	Magnetic field mediated targeted drug delivery, control of biodistribution, non-invasive imaging and reversibility	(15–18)
Feridex	MRI contrast	Targets liver	(18)
NanoTherm	Cancer therapy	Acts against cancerous cells	(19)
Iron-Platinum alloy nanoparticles	MRI interventional catheter and guidewire	Diagnostic and therapeutic contrast agent, Semi active resonant markers for catheter and passive markers for guidewires	(20)
2.	Gold	Verigene	In vitro diagnostics	Genetic	(21)
Nanogold or colloidal gold	Drug delivery, Biomedical imaging and diagnostics tests	Tunable optical and electronic properties	(22)
Aurimmune	Cancer therapy	Acts against cancerous cells	(23)
3.	AIE-active fluorogen-loaded BSA NPs	Fluorogen, 2-(2,6-bis((E)-4-(phenyl(4′-(1,2,2-triphenylvinyl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)amino)styryl)-4H-pyran-4-ylidene)malononitrile (TPE-TPA-DCM)	In vivo and in vitro imaging, excellent cancer cell uptake	Enhanced permeability and retention effect	(24)
4.	Nanoshell	Auroshell	Auroshell	Targets head, neck	(25)
Semiconductor
5.	Quantum dots	Qdots, EviTags	In vitro diagnostics	Targets tumor cells	(26)
6.	Semiconductor	Nanoco, CrystalPlex, cytodiagnostics	Fluorescence contrast	Acts at molecular level on tissues	(27)
7.	Nanocrystals	Sensors	Contrast agent	Sensing structures	(6)
Organic
8.	Cyanine dyes	Quantum dots-protein-dye conjugates	In vivo NIR fluorophores and FRET imaging could have far-reaching application in optical imaging	Tuning the degree of spectral overlap between donor and acceptor provides unique configuration	(28)
9.	Self-assembled chitosan (CHI) and modified lecithin (ML)	Biocompatible stable nanoparticles	Numerous application like reversible hemostatic action in wounds, drug delivery carriers	Stable over an extended pH and ionic strength range 8.7–67.2% encapsulation efficiency, ability to be converted to lyophilized powder or concentrated suspension.	(29)
10.	Targeted polymer nanoparticles loaded with (−)-epigallocatechin 3-gallate (EGCG)	Chemotherapeutic agent	Powerful potential to prevent prostate cancer (PCa)	Target prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA)	(30)
11.	Organically modified silica nanoparticles	Biocompatible nanoparticles	In vivo neuron targeting without harming whole organism or causing neuronal death	Penetrate into living brains, neuronal cell bodies and axonal projections without affecting viability	(31)
12.	Polydopamine fluorescent organic nanoparticles	Biocompatible nanoparticles	Cell imaging	Tunable photoluminescence	(25)
13.	5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) loaded biocompatible fluorescent zein nanoparticles	Solid lipid nanoparticles	For simultaneous bioimaging and drug delivery application	Better controlled release kinetics, improved stability, enhanced drug entrapment	(32)
14.	Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAIDs)-loaded nanoparticles	Biocompatible drug loaded nanoparticles	Models to be further integrated in a prosthesis surface functionalization	Controlled drug release	(33)
15.	Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs)	Biocompatible NPs with therapeutic effect	Potential co-delivery of therapeutic agents	Controlled drug delivery, acid degradable	(34)
16.	Polymeric NPs releasing cargo	Therapeutic multifunctional nanoparticles	Drug targeting, controlled release of therapeutic and diagnostic agents	Degrade and release cargo in response to biologically relevant levels of hydrogen peroxide	(35)

Fig. 2 (A) Unilamellar liposomes (Courtesy en.wikipedia.org) (37). (B) Schematic illustrations of carbon nanotube structures of various kind: i. armchair, ii. zigzag, and iii. chiral SWNTs (8). (C) SEM image of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with an average size of 189 nm. Reproduced with permission from Zhang et al. 2014 (51).

Fig. 3 (A) EDS-X-ray microanalysis of the Fe₃O₄–Cu–SMA–DMSO (Smart RISUG) indicating arrangement of drug particles in the Cuproferrogel compound. (B) HRTEM of 50–150×10⁻⁹ m sized Smart RISUG nanoparticles. (C) Schematic representation of Fe₃O₄–Cu nanoparticles surrounded by SMA polymer, and its use as a contraceptive.

Fig. 4 Qualitative FISH detection of HER2 gene-amplified SK-BR3 breast cancer cells with (A) Streptavidin conjugated Qdot 605 and (B) fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), respectively. Reproduced from Valizadeh et al., 2012 (83).

Fig. 5 (A) Schematic presentation of the encapsulation of anticancer drugs methotraxate (left) and 5-fluorouracil (right) into PEGylated generation 3 and 4 PAMAM dendrimers and (B) schematic presentation of dendrimers as nano-scaffold for the attachment of cell-specific ligands, modifiers, and fluorescence tags. Reproduced from Svenson and Tomalia, 2012 (101).

Fig. 6 A diagram depicting major possible roles of nano-biotechnology in reproductive healthcare.

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