Medicinally Important Aromatic Plants With Radioprotective Activity

Figures & data

Table 1.  Summary of aromatic plants investigated for their radioprotective activity and their chemical constituents.

Name of aromatic plant	Plant part used	Doses		Test system and parameters studied	Suggested possible mechanism	Chemical constituents	Ref.
		Plant extract	Radiation
Ageratum conyzoides	Whole plant extract	75 mg/kg	10 Gy	Mice/survival assay	Free radical scavenging	It is rich in polyoxygenated flavonoids. The triterpenes are friedelin, and the major sterols are sterols-β-sitosterol and stigmasterol Lycopsamine and echinatine, two isomeric pyrrolizidine are the alkaloids isolated from A. conyzoides. The oil content varies randomly from 0.11–0.58% for leaves and from 0.03–0.18% for the roots. The major components of the essential oil are 7-methoxy-2,2-dimethylchromene (precocene I), 6,7-dimethoxy derivative, ageratochromene (precocene II) and ageratochromene dimmer	[48–56]
Allium cepa	Bulb	5 ml/kg	X-ray 525 kv/s	Rats/biochemical parameters	Anti-oxidative and free radical scavenging	The essential oil of Allium cepa contains compounds such as 3-1,8-cineole, L-linalool and camphordare The onion bulb contains Kaempferol, β-sitosterol, ferulic acid, myritic acid and prostaglandins. Flavonoids and tannins also present in A. cepa. Quercetin, quercetin 4-glucoside, taxifolin, taxifolin 7-glucoside and phenylalanine have been isolated from the bulb The major sulfur compounds are dimethyl trisulfide, propenyl propyl disulfide, dipropyl disulfide, propenylmethyldisulfide and methyl propyl trisulfide dipropyle trisulfide. Onion contains active compounds such as allyl propyl disulfide along with other active sulfur-containing compounds	[62–67]
Allium sativum	Bulb	5 ml/kg	X-ray 525 kv/s	Rats/biochemical parameters	Anti-oxidative and free radical scavenging	It is rich in c-glutamylcysteine and other sulfur-containing compounds giving a characteristic flavor. However, additional constituents of garlic include a wide range of primary and secondary nonsulfur biomolecules, such are steroidal glycosides, essential oil, flavonoids, anthocyanins, lectins, prostaglandins, fructan, pectin, adenosine, vitamins B1, B2, B6, C and E, biotin, nicotinic acid, fatty acids, glycolipids, phospholipids and essential amino acids	[67,71–81]
Capsicum annuum	Pericalps	0.1–10 μg/ml	2 Gy	Human lymphocytes/genotoxicity, superoxide radical scavenging	Superoxide radical scavenging activity	Capsicum contains many chemicals, including water, fixed (fatty) oils, steam-volatile oil, carotenoids, capsaicinoids, resin, protein, fibre and mineral elements. Red bell peppers contain 280 ug/gm total carotenoids. Capsanthin accounts for 60% of the total carotenoids. They also contain 11% β-carotene and 20% capsorubin. Capsanthin is acylated with C12–18 saturated fatty acids	[89–91]
Centella asiatica	Whole plant extract	100 mg/kg	8 Gy	Mice/survival, body weight, membrane damage	Antioxidant activity	Triterpenoids include asiatcoside, centelloside, madecossoside, thankuniside, isothankunic acid, centellose, asiatic, centellic and madecassic acids and brahmoside, brahminoside, brahmicacid, the structure of their genin, brahmic acid (2,6-hydroxy, 23-hydroxy-methyl ursolic acid) Asiaticoside and madecossoside. The fatty oil consists of glycerides of palmitic, stearic, lignoceric, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids. An alkaloid, hydrocotylin has been isolated from the dried plants. Asiaticoside, madecossoside and centelloside have been isolated from the plant parts. Flavanoids, 3-glucosylquercetin, 3-glucosylkaemferol and 7-glucosylkaemferol have been isolated from the leaves	[93–99]
Citrus aurantium	Ripe fruit	250–1000 mg/kg	1.5 Gy	Mice/genotoxicity	Anti-oxidative and free radical scavenging	The main flavonoids occurred in cultivated citrus species are flavanone glycosides, hespiridin and naringin accounting 5% of dry weight of leaves and fruits and exhibit string antioxidant activity	[102–104]
Coleus aromaticus	Leaves	5 μg/ml	0.5, 1, 2, 4 Gy	Chinese hamster fibroblast cells (V79)	Antioxidant activity	The report on the chemical constituents of the leaves of C. aromaticus indicated the presence of carvacrol, thymol, eugenol, chavicol, ethyl salicylate, chlorophillin, flavonoids (cirsimaritin) and β-sitosterol-β-D-glucoside	[105–107]
Coriandrum sativum	Seeds	300 mg/kg 42 days	4 Gy	Rats/biochemical parameters	Free radical scavenging	Phytochemical constituents of C. sativum seeds showed the presence of polyphenols (rutin, caffeic acid derivatives, ferulic acid, galic acid and chlorogenic acid), flavonoids (quercetin and isoquercetin) and β-carotenoids. Seeds of coriander essential oils, however, leaves contain caffeic acid and flavonoids apart from volatile oils	[110–113]
Crocus sativus	Fridge dried extract	40 mg/kg	2 Gy	Mice/chromosomal damage; tissue biochemistry	Antioxidant activity	The major components of saffron are cis- and trans-crocins, which are glucosyl esters of 8,8′-diapocarotene-8,8′-dioic acid (crocetin), one of the few families of carotenoids that are freely soluble in water. It also contains safranal, which is a monoterpene aldehyde, and picrocrocin, which is a glycosidic precursor of safranal. Saffron is known to contain about 150 volatile and aromatic compounds including terpenes, terpene alcohol and their esters	[114–121]
Curcuma longa	Curcumin	5, 10 and 50 μg/ml	^131I (100 μCi/1.5 ml)	Human lymphocytes/genotoxicity	Antioxidant activity	The chemical study of different samples of turmeric has yielded essential oil (4.2–14%), fatty oil (4.4–12.7%) and moisture (10–12.0%). It has been demonstrated that the presence of three major constituents curcumin (diferuloylmethane), p-hydroxycinnamoyl(feruloyl)methane and p, p’-dihydroxydicinnamoylmethanel. Oil has the components such as sesquiterpene, ketones and alcohols	[123–127]
	C. longa extract	200 mg/kg	6.5 Gy	Rat/biochemical parameters	Antioxidant activity
Cymbopogon citratus	Whole plant extract	0.1%	2.5k Gy	Chicken meat	Antioxidant activity	The chemical composition of the essential oil of C. citratus consist of hydrocarbon terpenes, alcohols, ketones, esters and aldehydes. The essential oil mainly composed of citral, which is a mixture of two stereoisomeric monterpene aldehydes; the trans isomer geranial and cis isomer neral. It has been reported to contain flavonoids and phenolic compounds such as luteolin, quercetin, kampferol and apigenin glycosyl derivatives of the flavones apigenin and luteolin have been identified in infusions of the lemon grass leaves	[128–136]
Elettaria cordamomum	Ground dried fruit	2%	6 Gy	Albino rat/biochemical assay	Antioxidant activity	The volatile oil contains about 1.5% α-pinene, 0.2% β-pinene, 2.8% sabinene, 1.6% myrcene, 0.2% α-phellandrene, 11.6% limonene, 36.3% 1,8-cineole, 0.7% γ-terpinene, 0.5% terpinolene, 3% linalool, 2.5% linalyl acetate, 0.9% terpinen 4-ol, 2.6% α-terpineol, 31.3% α-terpinyl acetate, 0.3% citronellol, 0.5% nerd, 0.5% geraniol, 0.2% methyl eugenol and 2.7% trans-nerolidol. The cardamom aroma is produced by a combination of 1,8-cineole and α-terpinyl acetate	[139–141]
Illicium verum	Whole plant extract	0.1%	2.5 kGy	Chicken meat	Antioxidant activity	Anisyl acetone and benzenecarboxylic acid were identified as the main phenolic components present in aqueous fraction of I. verum	[136,142]
Lavandula angustifolia	Oil	20 μl; 40 μl	UV, 10, 20 30 Gy	Cell free assay/EPR, DPPH, reducing power assay	Antioxidant activity and free radical scavenging	A total of 47 compounds representing 98.4–99.7% of the oils were identified. 1,5-Dimethyl-1-vinyl-4-hexenylbutyrate was the main constituent of essential oil (43.73%), followed by 1,3,7-octatriene, 3,7-dimethyl- (25.10%), eucalyptol (7.32%) and camphor (3.79%)	[43,143–145]
Mangifera indica	Stem bark	5–100 μg/ml	5 Gy	Lymphoblastoid cells/DNA damage, protection and repair processes	Antioxidant activity	The bark is reported to contain protocatechic acid, catechin, mangiferin, alanine, glycine, γ-aminobutyric acid, kinic acid, shikimic acid and the tetracyclic triterpenoids cycloart-24-en-3β,26diol, 3-ketodammar-24 (E)-en-20S,26-diol, C-24 epimers of cycloart-25 en 3β,24, 27-triol and cycloartan-3β,24,27-triol	[147–149]
Mentha piperita	Oil	40 μl	8 Gy	Swiss albino mice/hematological and serum biochemistry	Antioxidant activity and free radical scavenging	Mentha extracts have antioxidant properties due to the presence of eugenol, caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid and α-tocopherol. Caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid, eriocitrin, luteolin-7-O-glucoside were identified as primary radical scavengers. It also contains phenolic acids, flavonoids and s-carvone	[15,151–158]
	Leaf extract	1000 mg/kg	8 Gy	Mice/survival assay, cytogenetic damage, testicular and intestinal damage	Antioxidant activity and free radical scavenging
Murraya Koenigii	Leaf extract	100 mg/kg	4 Gy	Swiss albino mice/GSH, LPO	Antioxidant activity	Leaves are aromatic and contain proteins, carbohydrates, fiber, minerals, carotene, nicotinic acid and vitamin C. The leaves contain high amount of oxalic acid, leaves also contains crystalline glycosides, carbazole alkaloids, koenigin and resin. Fresh leaves contain volatile oil rich in vitamin A and calcium. It also contains girinimbin, iso-mahanimbin, koenine, koenigine, koenidine and koenimbine. Mahanimbicine, bicyclomahanimbicine, phebalosin, coumarine as Murrayone imperatoxin etc are isolated from leaves Triterpenoid alkaloids – cyclomahanimbine and tetrahydromahanmbine are present in the leaves. Alkaloids-murrayastine, murrayaline, pypayafolinecarbazole have been reported	[160–163,243]
Myristica fragrance	Seed	10 mg/kg	6, 8, 10 Gy	Swiss albino mice/survival assay, tissue biochemistry	Free radical scavenging	The chemical constituents include myristicin, lignan and eugenol. The essential oil of nutmeg contains mainly sabinene (15–50%), α-pinene (10–22%) and β-pinene (7–18%), with myrcene (0.7–3%), 1,8- cineole (1.5–3.5%), myristicin (0.5–13.5%), limonene (2.7–4.1%), safrole (0.1–3.2%) and terpinen4-ol (0–11%)	[164–167]
Nigella sativa	As gelatin capsule (450 mg)	250 mg/kg	8 Gy	Male albino rats/biochemical & hematological parameters	Oxidative stress	The most important active compounds of black seeds are thymoquinone, thymohydroquinone, dithymoquinone, p-cymene, carvacrol, 4-terpineol, t-anethol, sesquiterpene longifolene α-pinene and thymol among others. Seeds also contain alkaloids as isoquinoline and pyrazol ring bearing alkaloids. Additionally, N. sativa seeds contain α-hederin, a water soluble pentacyclic triterpene and saponin	[171–174]
Ocimum sanctum	Leaves	10 mg/kg	1–6 Gy	Mice/chromosomal damage	Free radical scavenging	Whole plant extract contains flavonoids, alkanoids, saponins, phenols, anthocynins, triterpenoids, tannins. Leaf extract contains flavonoids, alkanoids, saponins, tannins, phenols, anthocynins, terpenoids, steroils	[177–181]
			4.5 Gy	Mice/glutathione and antioxidant enzymes	Antioxidant activity
Origanum vulgare L.	Dried powder of the plant	12.5, 25, 50 & 100 μg/ml	^131I (20 μCi/ml)	Human lymphocytes/Micronuclei frequency	Free radical scavenging	Antioxidants present in oregano are rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid, flavomoids and derivatives of phenolic acids and α-tocopherol. Also rosmarinic acid methyl ester, oregano-A and oregano-B acts as antioxidants	[12,18,185,186]
	Leaf extract	100, 200 mg/kg	3 Gy	Mice/bone marrow cells	Anti-oxidative and free radical scavenging
Piper longum	Dried powdered Fruits	400 mg/kg	6Gy	Mice/WBCs, bone marrow cells/GPT, ALP, LPO, GSH	Not known	Chemical studies have shown that the genus Piper has many components including unsaturated amides, flavonoids, lignans, aristolactams, long and short chain esters, terpenes, steroids, propenylphenols and alkaloids. The essential oils of ten Piperaceae species shown that the most frequently identified compounds were sesquiterpenes. However, the nonoxygenated monoterpenes (Z)p-ocimene, a-pinene and b-pinene were prevalent as well. A biosynthetic approach showed that the most common sesquiterpenes identified, E-caryophyllene and germacrene D, have the E, E-farnesyl-PP as fundamental precursor and only two were originated from E, Z-farnesyl-PP reactions (a-copaene and d-cadinene)	[188–193]
Plumbago rosea	Root extract	75 mg/kg	10 Gy	Experimental mouse tumor; S-180, Ehrlich ascites carcinoma	Radiosensitization for tumor killing effect	It has been reported that roots of P. rosea contains several naphthoquinonoids and their derivatives and flavonoids. The chemical constituents include plumbagin, palmitic acid and myricyl palmitate from petrol extract, and plumbagic acid lactone, ayanin and azaleatin from ethyl acetate extract of roots	[196–200]
Rosmarinus officinalis L.	Leaves	1000 mg/kg	6 Gy	Mice/liver and blood biochemistry	Free radical scavenging	It contains antioxidants such as carnosonic acid, carnosol, rosmarinic acid, rosmanol, isorosmanol and epirosmanol	[204,205]
Salvia officinalis L.	Leaves	2 gm/150 ml water	6 Gy	Rat/brain biochemistry	Antioxidant activity	Antioxidants present are salvinoloc acid (dimer of rosmarinic acid), carnosol, carnosic acid, rosmarinic acid, rosmanol, isorosmanol and epirosmanol	[6,8,209–211]
Syzygium aromaticum	Oil	200 mg/kg	7 Gy	Albino rat/liver and serum biochemistry	Anti-oxidative and free radical scavenging	Clove oil is an essential oil from the dried flower buds, leaves and stems of the tree S. aromaticum The main constituents of the essential oil are phenylpropanoids such as carvacol, thymol, eugenol and cinnaldehyde	[213,214]
Syzygium cumini	Leaf extract	0–100 μg/ml	3 Gy	Human lymphocytes/micronuclei induction	Free radical scavenging	The plant has been reported to poses acetyl oleanolic acid, triterpenoids, ellagic acid, isoquercitin, quercetin, kaempferol and myricetin in different concentrations	[94,216,217]
Valeriana wallichii	Root Extract	25, 50 or 100 μg/ml	2 Gy, 5 Gy and 150 Gy	Cultured human fibroblast cells/plasmid DNA	Free radical scavenging	Its rhizome and root contains volatile oil (valerianic oil) which is composed of alkaloids, boryl isovalerianate, chatinine, formate, glucoside, isovalerenic acid, 1- camphene, 1-pinene, resins, terpineol and valerianine. From the rhizomes, some important compounds, such as citric acid, malic acid, maliol, succinic acid and tartaric acid have been isolated	[220–222]
Withania somnifera	Root extract	100 mg/kg	6 Gy	Albino rats/hepatic biochemistry	Antioxidant activity	The extract of W. somnifera is a complex mixture of a large number of phytochemicals including phenolic compounds and flavonoids. However, the pharmacological effect of the roots of W. somnifera is attributed to withanolides. Withanolides are a series of naturally occurring steroids containing a lactone with a side chain of nine carbons, generally attached to C-17	[224–227]
Zingiber officinale	As tablet (400 mg)	250  mg/kg	8 Gy	Male albino rats/biochemical and hematological study	Oxidative stress	Gingerol-related compounds such as gingerol, shagaols, gengediols, zingerone, dehydrozingerone, gingerinone and diarylheptanoids accord antioxidant capacity to ginger rhizome. Geranial, camphene, p-cineole, α-terpineole, zingiberene and petandeconoic acid were major components of essential oil However, eugenol and zingerone were majoe components in ethanol oleoresin and methanol, CCl4 and isooctane oleoresin, respectively	[21,25,27,67,174,232–235]
	Fresh ginger extract	5 ml/kg	X-ray 525 kv/s	Rats/biochemical parameters	Anti-oxidative and free radical scavenging

EPR: Electron paramagnetic resonance; GSH: Reduced glutathione; LPO: Lipid peroxidation; WBC: White blood cell.

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