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ABSTRACT
Muslims are among the marginalised groups that had no direct access to land until the 1974 revolution which brought important and far-reaching changes to the socio-political and religious position of Ethiopian Muslims. Although research on Islam and Muslims in Ethiopia shows impressive progress, focusing on regional and contemporary Islam and marginalised groups over the last 30 years, the historical dimension has yet to appear. This research, based on authoritative published and unpublished sources, examines the history and situation of Muslims before and during imperial and immediate post-revolutionary Ethiopia. It also analyses multi-dimensional issues including exclusion, perception, religion, majority, minority, power relations, groups and state.
Note on Contributor
Temesgen Gebeyehu Baye is an associate professor of History at Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia. He is the author of a number of journal articles. Temesgen’s major research interests include agriculture, agrarian studies, land tenure and reforms, state-periphery relations, rural unrest, minority, and gender relations.
Notes
1 Of course, for many scholars Trimingham is viewed as a biased author. It is important to cite his sources critically and cautiously. For others, Trimingham’s book, Islam in Ethiopia, is regarded as a comprehensive study of Islam and Muslim communities in Ethiopia. It was intended to fulfil a limited purpose. His conclusion that the establishment of a fixed capital city at Gondar led to regionalism in politics needs further study.
2 For details on the Muslim-Christian interaction and cooperation in Africa, see Jon Abbink (Citation2014).
3 Throughout Ethiopia, however, the process of Islamisation was not followed by Arabisation because the converts remained with their national and ethnic identity. The Ethiopian Muslims retained their culture and language. In addition, the Arabs never carried out any conquests in Ethiopia.
4 Interview with Alem Baye (2 September 2014).
5 Interview with Guade Zewde (7 June 2014).
6 The letter states ‘we, Muslims of Gojjam, are more than two thousand’. Ethiopian National Archives and Library Agency 20.03.
7 Literally, ‘committee’; a term almost exclusively associated with the regime that ruled Ethiopia from 1974 to 1991.
8 Smallest administrative unit.
9 Wolde-Meskel Memorial Archive Research Center, Institute of Ethiopian Studies, file 21/53/1948.
10 Interview with Mustefa Seid (17 August 2016).
11 Ibid.
12 Interview with Ahmed Oumer & Yesuf Ali (7 August 2015).
13 Some oral sources argue that Ahmed Gragn did not cross the Blue Nile. He did not invade Gojjam in person and hence the devastation of Gojjam, compared with other regions of the empire, remained minimal. However, Gragn’s costume is in the compound of the monastery of Mertulemaryam.. The costume is still in good condition today. There is also a stone in the compound claimed to have been thrown into the place where it stands today from a nearby hill by Gragn and hence it is referred to as Gragn Yeworeworew dengay (stone thrown by Gragn). According to oral sources, Gragn’s costume was brought to the monastery of Mertulemaryam by Emperor Gelawdewos who earlier pledged to bring his costume if he won the battle against Gragn. As a result, he brought and gave Gragn’s costume to the church. Another source, however, suggests that the existing cloth was a costume of a previous ruler of one of the sultanates in the region. The costume was brought during the time of Emperor Zerya-qob or before. Regarding the stone, they believed it was a myth, to justify the inevitability of defeat of Christians by Muslims given the extraordinary physical prowess of Gragn. Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim was clearly a charismatic and capable military leader and was able to unite and mobilise Afars and Somalis in a war against the Christian state. Harold Marcus clearly states: ‘He declared a jihad and began a great Muslim invasion in 1527. He was the nightmare of Christian Ethiopia and sought to impose Islamic Puritanism’ (1994: 23).
14 Interview with Tesfaw Seleshi & Seid Dawed (4 October 2014).
15 Interview with Mesfin Anteneh and Asrat Arya (4 May 2018).
16 Interview with Seid Dawed (4 October 2014).
17 In Motta town, for example, according to the 2005 estimated data, of the total 33,000 population 73 per cent were Muslims. In Bichena and Dejen towns, according to my informant, Hunegnaw Jenbere, the percentage is similar.
18 Ethiopian National Archives and Library Agency, file 1.1.6.21.
19 Ibid; Interview with Ahmed Hassen (2 May 2014).
20 Gebere, in Gojjam, has two meanings. On one hand, it refers to a cultivator or a farmer who works for a rich landowner for a fixed payment, usually residing on the land or in the house of the landowner. On the other hand, it could mean hardworking and successful in one’s agricultural activity.
21 Interview with Ahmed Omer (2 May 2014).
22 Interview with Dawd Mohammed (12 April 2014).
23 Permanently held land; hereditary right over land; heritable property (in some cases conditional).
24 Wolde Meskel Memorial Archives Research Center, file 1.7.1946. Governorate General report to the Ministry of Interior.
25 Lack of access to land had other consequences. If there was no land, there was no grazing land. If there was no grazing land, there were no cattle.
26 Rist holder; a person having rist rights; person holding land in consequence of his inherited rights.
27 Literary, one who has a father; indigenous. During imperial times, it used to signify or represent a local authority linking the government with local people.
28 One-tenth of harvest paid to the state in the form of produce tax; later replaced by the agricultural income tax.
29 Ethiopian National Archives and Library Agency, file 04.04.
30 Interview with Dereje Asamnew (4 June 2014).
31 Ethiopian National Archives and Library Agency, file 1.2.77.11.
32 Literally ‘in my behalf’; viceroy or governorate general of a higher authority.
33 Institute of Ethiopian Studies. Manuscript section, file 2396/02/5. Ahmedn Jebel has also mentions it in his book, Sostu Atsewochena Ethiopiawian Muslimoch (2015: 383).
34 Literary, ‘union’.
35 Addis Zemen 13 Miazia (April) 1966.
36 ‘A proclamation to provide for public holidays and rest days’. Negerit Gazeta 17 January 1975; ‘A proclamation to determine the observance of public holidays’. Negerit Gazeta 22 March 1975; ‘100,000 Addis Ababans stage massive demonstration yesterday’. Ethiopian Herald 21 April 1974; Addis Zemen 13 Miyazya 1966.
37 A letter from secretary of Mota Awrajja to Gojjam Province administration office, 10 Hidar 1969; For details on the portion of Islam and Muslims in socialist Ethiopia, see Ahmed (1994): 776–85.
38 From the Muslim representatives of Qolla Dega Damot awrajja to the Ministry of Interior, 15 April 1975. The three men were Mekonnen Kebede, Ibrahim Hasen and Sebsebe Bashir.
39 Debre-Marqos Police Department Archive, 870.114.6.1976: From two Muslim elders of Jega woreda to the Provisional Military Government of Ethiopia, 30 April 1975.
40 Interview with Adamu Mulatu (3 April 2014).
41 Commander of the vanguard forces.
42 Commander of the right wing.
43 Ibid; Mota District Administration Archive, file 112.67.86/1997.
44 Interview with Mulatu Melese (9 October 2014).