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Notes
1. Parul Dave Mukherji, “Whither Art History in a Globalizing World,” Art Bulletin 96 (June 2104): 151–55.
2. Claudia Mattos, “Geography, Art Theory, and New Perspectives for an Inclusive Art History,” Art Bulletin 96 (September 2014): 259–64.
3. There are numerous visual and art studies programs at other educational institutions, but the first art history program in the country was developed at the University of the Philippines.
4. I use the third person “their” because despite inclusive efforts to reach out to the peripheries, it is still those who sit at the center who have the dominant voice and who control the canon, as Mattos (“Geography, Art Theory, and New Perspectives”) notes.
5. Patrick Flores, “Art History, Broadly” (paper presented at the conference “Histories of Art History in Southeast Asia,” organized by the Sterling and Francine Clark Institute and the University of the Philippines, Department of Art Studies, March 2013).
6. Josefa Lava, quoted in ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. “A Portrait of the Philippines—Fernando Amorsolo's Paintings,” posted by Coconuter, January 25, 2010, http://coconuter.blogspot.com/2010/01/portrait-of-philippines-fernando.html (accessed December 21, 2014).
9. Dominador Castañeda, Art in the Philippines from the Spanish Conquest to the Present: Architecture, Painting and Sculpture during the Spanish Regime, American Regime and the Present (Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1964).
10. I first conceptualized this project as a traditional hard-copy translation of the illustrated Spanish manuscript known as the Boxer Codex in the collection of the Lilly Library, Bloomington, Indiana, in partnership with Maritoni Ortigas, former director of the Filipinas Heritage Library, after our initial collaboration with the Lilly on excerpts from the Boxer Codex as part of gallery didactics for a permanent exhibition at the Ayala Museum in 2008. With helpful advice from Murtha Baca, head of the digital art history program at the Getty Research Institute (GRI), the concept has evolved into a digital art history project that will utilize the Getty Scholars' Workspace being developed at GRI. Fellow resident scholars from the 2013–14 “Connecting Seas: Cultural and Artistic Exchange” theme and others with pertinent research interests will be collaborating in this online work environment.
11. See, for example, Leandro Locsin and Cecilia Locsin, Oriental Ceramics Discovered in the Philippines (Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. Tuttle, 1967)
; and Florina H. Capistrano-Baker, ed., Philippine Ancestral Gold (Makati City: Ayala Foundation, 2011).12. See, for example, Fernando Zóbel de Ayala, Philippine Religious Imagery (1963; reprint, Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1974)
; Esperanza Gatbonton, Philippine Religious Carvings in Ivory (Manila: Intramuros Administration, 1983) ; and Regalado Trota Jose, Images of Faith: Religious Ivory Carvings from the Philippines (Pasadena, Calif.: Pacific Asia Museum, 1990).13. See, for example, Benito Legarda, After the Galleons: Foreign Trade, Economic Change and Entrepreneurship in the Nineteenth Century Philippines (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1999)
; and Florina H. Capistrano-Baker, “Beyond Hemp: The Manila-Salem Trade, 1796–1858,” in Global Trade and Visual Arts in Federal New England, ed. Patricia Johnston and Caroline Frank (Lebanon, N.H.: University Press of New England, 2014), 251–64.14. Chinese artists were attracted to the Western educational system in Manila. Huang Suibi and Yang Gengtang traveled from Xiamen to Manila to study oil painting and sculpture. On their return to China, they founded the Xiamen Art School in 1918. In 1936, the volatile political situation in Xiamen forced many of the students and teachers to flee, among them, Lim Hak Tai, who founded the Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts in Singapore. Kwok Kian Chow and Chow Yian Ping, Modern Art in Southeast Asia (Nanning: Guangxhi meishu chubanshe, 2006), 24–25.
15. An exhibition I curated at the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, Pioneers of Philippine Art: Luna, Amorsolo, Zóbel (October 20, 2006–January 7, 2007), explored the transnationalism of these three visual artists.
16. Vicente L. Rafael's insightful critiques illuminate the complex manipulations of language and translation in the construction of nation in colonial Philippine society, particularly the analogy between painting in the borrowed academic style and appropriating the Castilian language: Rafael, Contracting Colonialism: Translation and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society under Early Spanish Rule (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988)
; White Love and Other Events in Filipino History (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2000); and The Promise of the Foreign: Nationalism and the Technics of Translation in the Spanish Philippines (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005).17. Edward J. Sullivan, “Lost in Translation? Juan Luna between Manila and Madrid,” in Pioneers of Philippine Art: Luna, Amorsolo, Zóbel, Transnationalism in the Late 19th–20th Century, ed. Florina H. Capistrano-Baker with Sullivan and Peter Soriano (Makati City: Ayala Foundation, published in conjunction with the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, 2006), 61.
18. José Rizal, Political and Historical Writings, vol. 7 (Manila: National Heroes Commission, 1964), 17–22.
19. Teodoro Agoncillo et al., Graciano Lopez Jaena: Speeches, Articles and Letters (Manila: National Historical Commission, 1974), 26–31.
20. Sullivan, “Lost in Translation?” 61.
21. Ibid., 62.
22. Ibid., 68–69; and Santiago Albano Pilar, “Juan Luna: The Blazing Cornerstone,” in Capistrano-Baker et al., Pioneers of Philippine Art, 19–21.
23. Alfredo Roces, Amorsolo (Makati City: Filipinas Foundation, 1975), 35.
24. The painting, known as Maiden with Lanzones, is now in the collection of the Ayala Museum, illustrated in Capistrano-Baker et al., Pioneers of Philippine Art, pl. 10.
25. Elizabeth Mary Holt, Colonizing Filipinas: Nineteenth-Century Representations of the Philippines in Western Historiography (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2002), 70.
26. Roces, Amorsolo, 90.
27. According to cultural historian Nick Joaquin, the color red was the theme of the revolution against Spain, when the “red, red saya came into its own … as the costume of the Katipunera.” Joaquin, quoted in Holt, Colonizing Filipinas, 68.
28. Fernando Amorsolo, quoted in Roces, Amorsolo, 30, 43.
29. For Sorolla's portraits of José and Mariano Benlliure, see Priscilla Muller and Marcus Burke, Sorolla (New York: Hispanic Society of America, 2004),
120–21, 223–24.30. I thank Edward J. Sullivan for alerting me to possible links between Luna's and Sorolla's art, which made me pay closer attention to their mutual friends in Rome, the sculptor Mariano Benlliure and his brothers José and Juan Antonio. For Luna's portrait of Mariano Benlliure, see Santiago Albano Pilar, Juan Luna (Pasig City, Philippines: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 1980), 56.
31. Muller and Burke, Sorolla, 27.
32. Ibid., 14–19.
33. Santiago Albano Pilar, Pamana: The Jorge B. Vargas Collection (Quezon City: UP Vargas Museum, 1992), 44
; and Muller and Burke, Sorolla, 20.34. Illustrated in Capistrano-Baker et al., Pioneers of Philippine Art, pl. 18.
35. Alfonso J. Aluit, By Sword and Fire: The Destruction of Manila in World War II (3 February–3 March 1945) (Makati City: Bookmark, 1994), 140 and passim.
36. Roces, Amorsolo, 110.
37. Other landmark buildings demolished by city officials include the Jai Alai Building designed by American architects Welton Becket and Walter Wurdemann, considered one of the finest Art Deco buildings in Asia, razed in 2000 amid protests, purportedly to make way for a new Hall of Justice, which was never built. Destruction of the Army and Navy Club Building, designed by William Parsons and the former site of Museo ng Maynila, commenced in 2014. In the same year, the Department of Public Works and Highways started demolishing a two-hundred-year-old Spanish colonial bridge built by Dominican missionaries and the Isinay cultural community in Dupax, Nueva Vizcaya, as part of a road-widening project. E. Sembrano, “Demolish Now Conserve Later,” Philippine Daily Inquirer, September 15, 2014, http://lifestyle.inquirer.net/171889/demolish-now-conserve-later#ixzz3N8UVDEbp (accessed December 27, 2014). Support from international colleagues is urgently needed to stop this ongoing destruction of heritage sites that are critical not only in the local context but also in tracing cultural and artistic exchange with the rest of the world.
38. Amorsolo's idealized images, while not always historically accurate or based on reality, have nonetheless become indelible markers of group identity. Benedict Anderson's influential discussion of the “imagined community,” in which he defines the nation as an imagined political community whose sense of identity is grounded in an imagined historical continuity, is particularly pertinent here. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), passim.
39. It is noteworthy that in 1950, through the artist and art patron Alfonso Ossorio, his fellow Harvard alumnus, Zóbel met Jackson Pollock. Peter Soriano, “Fernando Zóbel: A Biographical Sketch of Zóbel's Formative Years,” in Capistrano-Baker et al., Pioneers of Philippine Art, 93; and Grace Glueck, obituary of Alfonso Ossorio, New York Times, December 6, 1990, http://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/06/obituaries/alfonso-ossorio-74-artist-and-patron-of-the-arts.html.
40. Rafael Perez-Madero, Zóbel, exh. cat. (Madrid: Aldeasa, 2003), 273.
41. Peter Soriano, Creative Transformations: Drawings and Paintings by Fernando Zóbel, exh. cat. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Art Museums, n.d.).
42. Perez-Madero, Zóbel, 273–75.
43. Maritoni Ortigas, ed., Fernando Zóbel in the 1950s: The Formative Years, exh. cat. (Makati City: Ayala Foundation, 2009), 4, 8
. In his book Iberia: Spanish Travels and Reflections (New York: Random House, 1984), James A. Michener describes a visit to Casas Colgadas in Cuenca with Fernando Zóbel.44. Soriano, “Fernando Zóbel: A Biographical Sketch,” 99–100.
45. Harvard University History of Named Chairs: Sketches of Donors and Donations, 1991–2004 (Cambridge, Mass.: President and Fellows of Harvard College, 2004), 188–89.
46. Benito Legarda, “Fernando Zóbel: A Personal Memoir,” in Ortigas, Fernando Zóbel in the 1950s, 11.
47. Emmanuel Torres, quoted in Ortigas, Fernando Zóbel in the 1950s, 5.
48. Florina H. Capistrano-Baker, “The Other Asian Art: The Philippines in the Colonial and Postcolonial Era” (paper delivered at the King Juan Carlos I of Spain Center, New York University, 2006).
49. Paul Pfeiffer, quoted in Lourdes Lee Valeriano, “Identity and Invisibility: Contemporary Filipino-American Art in New York,” in Pananaw Philippine Journal of Visual Arts, vol. 4, ed. Florina H. Capistrano-Baker (Manila: National Commission for Culture and the Arts, 2002), 43.
50. Patrick Flores, proposal for the Philippine Pavilion at the 2015 Venice Biennale. Filipino actor Manuel Conde's 1950 movie Genghis Khan was screened at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, and the Venice Film Festival in 1952, where it competed with the films of Charlie Chaplin, René Clement, Federico Fellini, Ingmar Bergman, and Kenji Mizoguchi. The film was co-written and designed by Filipino painter Carlos V. Francisco.
51. Legarda, “Fernando Zóbel: A Personal Memoir,” 12.
52. Sullivan, “Lost in Translation?” 81.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Florina H. Capistrano-Baker
Florina H. Capistrano-Baker received her Ph.D., M.Phil., and M.A. in art history from the Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University, and an A.B. in humanities (cum laude) from the University of the Philippines. She was formerly the director of Ayala Museum, Philippines, where she is currently consultant [[email protected] or [email protected]].