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People, Place, and Region

Parks and People: An Environmental Justice Inquiry in Baltimore, Maryland

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Pages 767-787 | Received 01 Jun 2007, Accepted 01 Jul 2008, Published online: 04 Sep 2009
 

Abstract

This article examines the distribution of parks in Baltimore, Maryland, as an environmental justice issue. In addition to established methods for measuring distribution of and access to parks, we employ a novel park service area approach that uses Thiessen polygons and dasymetric reapportioning of census data to measure potential park congestion as an equity outcome measure. We find that a higher proportion of African Americans have access to parks within walking distance, defined as 400 meters or less, than whites, but whites have access to more acreage of parks within walking distance than blacks. A needs-based assessment shows that areas with the highest need have the best access to parks but also have access to less acreage of parks compared to low-need areas. Park service areas that are predominantly black have higher park congestion than areas that are predominantly white, although differences are less apparent at the city level than at the metropolitan level. Following Iris Young and others, we argue that conceptions of justice must move beyond distributive justice and address the social and institutional mechanisms that generate inequities. For Baltimore, we examine how segregation ordinances, racial covenants, improvement associations, the Home Owners Loan Corporation, and the Parks and Recreation Board created separate black spaces historically underserved with parks. These mechanisms ultimately fueled middle-class flight and suburbanization and black inheritance of much of Baltimore's space, including its parks. If justice demands just distribution justly achieved, the present-day pattern of parks in Baltimore should be interpreted as environmental injustice.

Este artículo examina la distribución de parques en Baltimore, Maryland, en términos de justicia ambiental. Además de los métodos usuales para medir la distribución y acceso a los parques, nosotros empleamos un novedoso enfoque de área de servicio del parque, el cual utiliza los polígonos Thiessen y la distribución dasimétrica de datos censales para medir la congestión potencial del parque como una medida del grado de equidad. Descubrimos que hay mayor proporción de afroamericanos que blancos con acceso a los parques a distancia peatonal, la cual se define como de 400 metros o menos; pero más que los negros, los blancos pueden acceder a parques de mayor extensión, situados a distancia peatonal. Una evaluación basada en niveles de necesidad muestra que las áreas con las mayores necesidades tienen el mejor acceso a parques, pero también tienen acceso a parques de menor extensión, en comparación con lo que ocurre en áreas de necesidades menores. Las áreas de servicio de parques en donde predomina la población negra exhiben mayor congestión que las áreas con predominio blanco, aunque las diferencias son menos aparentes al nivel de ciudad que del metropolitano. Siguiendo a Iris Young y otros, argüimosque la concepción de justicia tiene que ir más allá de la justicia distributiva y debe enfrentar los mecanismos sociales e institucionales que generan inequidad. Examinamos cómo en Baltimore las ordenanzas de segregación, convenios raciales, las asociaciones de bienestar, la Corporación de Préstamos para Propietarios de Vivienda, y el Consejo de Parques y Recreación, han contribuido a crear espacios negros separados, siempre deficientes en el servicio de parques. En últimas, estos mecanismos llevaron a la desbandada de la clase media, al desarrollo de la suburbanización y la herencia por los negros de gran parte del espacio de Baltimore, incluidos sus parques. Si a la justicia se la concibe como distribución justa, lograda con justicia, entonces el actual patrón de parques de Baltimore debe interpretarse como injusticia ambiental.

Acknowledgments

Research for this article was supported through awards from the National Science Foundation Long-Term Ecological Research program (DEB 0423476), the National Science Foundation Human and Social Dynamics program (SBE–HSD 0624159), and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service (06JV11242300039). We thank Audrey Kobayashi and the anonymous reviewers for their very helpful comments and encouragement.

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