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Nature and Society

Lost and Found Crops: Agrobiodiversity, Indigenous Knowledge, and a Feminist Political Ecology of Sorghum and Finger Millet in Northern Malawi

Pages 577-593 | Received 01 May 2011, Accepted 01 May 2013, Published online: 29 Apr 2014
 

Abstract

This article tells the story of two indigenous, drought-tolerant grains, finger millet and sorghum, once grown in northern Malawi. Sorghum essentially disappeared from the landscape, replaced by maize. Finger millet persisted, despite being discouraged by colonial and postcolonial governments, but is now in decline. This case study of these two crops in northern Malawi uses data from in-depth interviews, focus groups, archival documents, and observations. I suggest that sorghum almost disappeared due to a combination of maize promotion, male migration, and pest problems. An upsurge of tobacco production, in part due to neoliberal policies, combined with gender dynamics that favor maize are reducing finger millet production. Drawing on theories of feminist political ecology, resilience, and indigenous knowledge, I argue that agrobiodiversity and related indigenous knowledge are situated in material and gendered practices. Efforts to improve social resilience in these vulnerable regions need to pay attention to processes and the intersectionality of gender, class, and other subjectivities at different scales that produce particular agricultural practices and knowledge in a given place.

本文讲述北马拉威昔日所种植的两种原生且耐乾旱的穀类——穇子以及高粱的故事。高粱基本上从地景中消失, 并被玉蜀黍所取代。穇子儘管被殖民及后殖民政府阻挠种植, 但却仍然存在, 而今却正逐渐消失中。这两种位于北马拉威的作物的案例研究, 运用深度访谈、焦点团体、档案研究, 以及观察所取得的数据。我主张, 鼓励种植玉蜀黍、男性迁徙, 以及害虫问题等复合因素, 导致了高粱近乎灭绝。部分由新自由主义政策导致的菸草生产的成长, 与偏好玉蜀黍的性别动态结合之下, 使得穇子的生产逐渐减少。我运用女性主义政治生态学理论、恢復力, 以及原住民知识, 主张农业生态多样性及相关的原住民知识, 是位于物质与性别化的实践之中。改进这些脆弱区域中的社会恢復力, 必须关注性别、阶级与他主体性在不同尺度的过程及多元交织性, 在给定之地所生产的特定农业实践及知识。

Este artículo relata la historia de dos granos indígenas adaptados a la sequía, el millo (mijo) perla y el sorgo, que tradicionalmente han sido cultivados en la parte norte de Malawi. El sorgo esencialmente desapareció del paisaje, remplazado por el maíz. El millo perla persistió, pese a que su cultivo fue desestimulado por los gobiernos colonial y poscolonial, pero ahora está en declive. El estudio de caso sobre estas dos cosechas en el norte de aquel país utiliza datos generados en entrevistas a profundidad, grupos focales, documentos de archivo y observaciones de campo. Pienso que el sorgo casi desapareció debido a las campañas de promoción del maíz, combinadas con otros factores como la migración de varones y problemas de plagas. En lo que se refiere al millo perla, su producción se ha reducido por la competencia de la reactivación de cultivos de tabaco, debida en parte a políticas neoliberales, combinado todo esto con dinámicas de género que favorecen el cultivo del maíz. A partir de teorías de ecología política feminista, resiliencia y conocimiento indígena, arguyo que la agro-biodiversidad y el conocimiento indígena pertinente son factores situacionales en las prácticas de materialidad y género. Los esfuerzos para mejorar la resiliencia social en estas regiones vulnerables deben poner atención sobre los procesos y la interseccionalidad de género, clase y otras subjetividades, a diferentes escalas, que producen prácticas agrícolas particulares y conocimiento en un lugar dado.

Notes

1The term kaffir corn comes from the racist term kaffir used in southern Africa to refer to black Africans and is no longer in common usage.

2See www.soilandfood.org for more information about this work.

3Malawi National Archives (MNA) File S1/54 F-J/33, Mzimba District Annual Report 1932.

4MNA File A 3/2/26, Board of Agriculture report 1933.

5MNA File A 3/2/26, Board of Agriculture report 1933.

6MNA File 7-1-6R 35500 13/14/36, Sorghum and Millets 1971–1982.

7MNA Record Management Section (RMS) File 1/8, Location 12-2-7R, Box 42145, Northern Region Annual Report 1974.

8MNA RMS, File 19/8/1A, Annual Report Northern Region, 21-16-6R, 1963–1974.

9All respondent names have been changed to protect confidentiality.

10MNA RMS File 19/8/1A Annual Report Northern Region, 21-16-6R, 1963–1974.

11MNA File 7-1-6R 35500 13/14/36 Sorghum & Millets file.

12At the time of submitting this article, President Joyce Banda had been in power for less than one year following the death of Bingu wa Mutharika. President Banda's agricultural policies are not yet fully clear.

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