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Abstract
Aluminium du Cameroun (Alucam) was set up in 1957 as a subsidiary of the French aluminium group Pechiney. Since its creation, the Alucam plant has systematically applied policies that simultaneously integrate economic, social and environmental aspects. The originality of our contribution is that we describe a case where the three elements that make up corporate social responsibility (economic, social and environmental) are intertwined. Although this combination of elements had not formally materialised at the time, the case examined shows early awareness – comparatively ahead of its time and relatively well combined between the 1950s and the 1980s – of the three dimensions of corporate social responsibility.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the IHA for its support in this research. They are grateful to the reviewers and the editor for the quality of their comments, which helped to improve the article considerably. They also wish to acknowledge Becky Rawlings for her excellent editing work.
Notes
1. According to Freeman, ‘a stakeholder in an organization is (by definition) any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organization’s objectives’. Freeman, Strategic Management Stakeholder Approach, 46.
2. Bowen, Social Responsibilities Businessman.
3. Acquier and Aggeri, ‘Généalogie RSE’; Acquier et al., ‘Rediscovering Bowen’s Legacy’; Capron and Quairel, La RSE; Carroll, ‘CSR, Evolution Definitional Construct’; Carroll, ‘A History of CSR’; Carroll and Shabana, ‘Business Case of CSR’; Evans et al., ‘History of Management Thought’; Frederick, ‘Theory of CSP’; Frederick ‘CSR: Deep Roots’; Garriga and Melé, ‘CSR Theories’; Gond and Igalens, Responsabilité sociale entreprise; Gond and Mullenbach, ‘Fondements théoriques RSE’; Heald, ‘Management’s Responsibility’; Heald, ‘Business Thought Twenties’; Heald, Social Responsibilities of Business; Jones, ‘Debating the Responsibility Capitalism’; Lee, ‘Review of Theories CSR’; Moura-Leite and Padgett, ‘Historical Background of CSR’; Pasquero, ‘RSE comme objet’; Preston, ‘Corporation and Society’; Waddock, ‘Parallel Universes’.
4. Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’; Moquet and Pezet, ‘Technologies responsabilité sociétale’; Pezet, Décision investissement industriel.
5. The IHA was founded in 1986. It has three main missions: protecting the aluminium industry’s heritage; fostering the multidisciplinary study of the history of aluminium in its technical, economic, industrial, commercial and cultural aspects; and finally, promoting such research.
6. Our sources and their references are mentioned when quoted in the remainder of the text.
7. Grinberg and Pezet, ‘RSE cahier d’écolier’; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’; Loison and Pezet, ‘Boues rouges Gardanne’.
8. Pechiney was created in 1855. It is now part of the Rio Tinto-Alcan Group.
9. Beaud et al., Une multinationale française PUK; Cailluet, ‘Stratégies, structures d’organisation’; Gignoux, Histoire d’une entreprise française; Karlin and Lainé, La multinationale Pechiney; Lesclous, Histoires des sites aluminium; Périères, ‘Grande Compagnie industrielle’.
10. See Larrue, Fria en Guinée.
11. Laparra and Grinberg, ‘Passing through Cameroon’; Larrue, ‘Fria aspects humains’; Larrue, Fria en Guinée; Lesclous, Histoires des sites aluminium; Mioche, ‘Cameroon winning streak’.
12. (French) Cameroun achieved independence in 1960. Following a number of post-independence changes to both its territory and its constitution, the country’s official name is now the Republic of Cameroon. We use both spellings here to indicate the periods before (Cameroun) and after (Cameroon) independence from the French Empire.
13. Hachez-Leroy, ‘Marché aluminium Afrique’.
14. See Barjot and Petitpas, ‘Alcan et Pechiney’; Bertilorenzi, ‘Eurafrique de l’aluminium’; Bertilorenzi, International Aluminium Cartel; Filippi, ‘La création d’Alucam’; Hachez-Leroy, ‘Marché aluminium Afrique’; Laparra and Grinberg, ‘Passing through Cameroon’; Larrue, Fria en Guinée; Lesclous, Histoires des sites aluminium; Nedrelid, ‘Histoire succès industriel’; Petitpas, ‘Filiales françaises Alcan’; Petitpas, ‘Stratégie internationale Alcan’.
15. The production of aluminium depends on two strategic factors: electricity and the raw material bauxite used to produce alumina (which, in this case, came initially from Gardanne (France) and then from the Fria plant (Guinea) which came on stream in 1961).
16. See Hachez-Leroy, ‘Marché aluminium Afrique’; Laparra, ‘Enelcam – Alucam’; Laparra, ‘Alucam electrical energy’; Lesclous, Histoires des sites aluminium; Lesclous, ‘Electricité et aluminium’; Okalla Bana, ‘Electrification du Cameroun’; Okalla Bana, ‘De Pechiney à Alcan’; Okalla Bana, ‘EDF et Cameroun’.
17. See Ageron, La décolonisation française; CHEFF, France et outre-mer; Coquery-Vidrovitch, L’Afrique occidentale; d’Almeida-Topor, L’Afrique du XXe siècle; d’Almeida-Topor and Lakroum, L’Europe et l’Afrique; Marseille, Empire colonial capitalisme français; Migani, La France et l’Afrique; Thobie et al., Histoire France coloniale.
18. IHA archives, 05-1-502-Béguin 99: report on psychological studies in Africa (1956–57). Pechiney/Alcan archives, 001-14-20469: memorandum on the effects of Alucam’s operations on the social and human development of Cameroun, 22 February 1957.
19. See note 3 above.
20. Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom; Friedman ‘Social Responsibility of Business’; Levitt, ‘Dangers of Social Responsibility’.
21. Bowen, Social Responsibilities Businessman. When Bowen published this book in 1953, it was the fruit of three years of research funded by the Rockefeller Foundation and commissioned by the Department of the Church and Economic Life – one of the study committees of the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America. Bowen’s work is the first in the series, whose objective is to provide Protestant thinkers with an equivalent of the Catholic Encyclical, the Rerum Novarum of Pope Leo XIII of 1891. See Acquier et al., ‘Rediscovering Bowen’s Legacy’.
22. See Evans et al., ‘History of Management Thought’; Heald, ‘Management’s Responsibility’; Heald, ‘Business Thought Twenties’; Heald, Social Responsibilities of Business; Hoffman, ‘CSR in the 1920s’; Jones, ‘Debating the Responsibility Capitalism’; Marens, ‘Recovering the Past’; Marens, ‘What Comes Around’.
23. See Acquier et al., ‘Rediscovering Bowen’s Legacy’; Berrier-Lucas, ‘Emergence dimension environnementale’; Carroll, ‘CSR, Evolution Definitional Construct’.
24. Davis, ‘Can Business Afford’; Davis, ‘Understanding Social Responsibility Puzzle’; Eells, Corporate Giving Free Society; Frederick, ‘Growing Concern over Business’; Heald, ‘Management’s Responsibility’; Mc Guire, Business and Society; Selekman, A Moral Philosophy; Walton, CSR.
25. Lee, ‘Review of Theories CSR’; Moura-Leite and Padgett, ‘Historical Background of CSR’.
26. Davis, ‘Case For and Against’; Eells and Walton, Conceptual Foundations of Business; Johnson, Business in Contemporary Society; Preston and Post, Private Management Public Policy; Steiner, Business and Society.
27. Ackerman, ‘How Companies Respond’; Frederick, ‘From CSR1 to CSR2’; Sethi, ‘Dimensions of CSP’.
28. Carroll, ‘Three Dimensional Conceptual Model’; Wartick and Cochran, ‘Evolution of CSP’; Wood, ‘CSP Revisited’.
29. See Aldag and Bartol, ‘Empirical Studies of CSP’.
30. Carroll, ‘A History of CSR’, 35.
31. de George, ‘Status of Business Ethics’; Epstein, ‘Field of Business Ethics’; Frederick, ‘Toward CSR3’; Frederick ‘CSR: Deep Roots’.
32. Clarkson, ‘Stakeholder Framework for CSP’; Donaldson and Preston, ‘Stakeholder Theory of Corporation’; Freeman, Strategic Management Stakeholder Approach; Jones, ‘Instrumental Stakeholder Theory’; Mitchell et al., ‘Toward Theory of Stakeholder’.
33. Garriga and Melé, ‘CSR Theories’; Waddock, ‘Parallel Universes’.
34. Griffin and Mahon, ‘CSP and Financial Performance’; Margolis and Walsh, ‘Misery Loves Companies’; Orlitzky et al., ‘Corporate Social Financial Performance’; Wood, ‘Measuring CSP’.
35. Agle et al., ‘Dialogue Toward Stakeholder Theory’; Freeman, ‘Politics of Stakeholder Theory’; Freeman, ‘Divergent Stakeholder Theory’; Jones and Wicks, ‘Convergent Stakeholder Theory’; Parmar et al., ‘Stakeholder Theory State Art’; Phillips et al., ‘What Stakeholder is Not’.
36. Epstein, ‘Field of Business Ethics’; Holland and Albrecht, ‘Academic Field Business Ethics’; Werhane and Freeman, ‘Business Ethics State Art’.
37. Gautier and Pache, ‘Research on Corporate Philanthropy’; Muirhead, Corporate Contributions 50 Years; Vaidyanathan, ‘Corporate Giving Literature Review’.
38. Altman and Vidaver-Cohen, ‘Framework Understanding Corporate Citizenship’; Logsdon and Wood, ‘Business Citizenship Analysis’; Waddock, ‘Parallel Universes’.
39. Dyllick and Hockerts, ‘Beyond Business Case Sustainability’; Moon, ‘Contributions CSR Sustainable Development’; Van Marrewijk, ‘Concepts Definitions CSR Sustainability’.
40. Elkington, Cannibals with Forks.
41. Scherer and Palazzo, ‘Political Conception Corporate Responsibility; Scherer and Palazzo, ‘New Political Role Business.
42. Freeman, Strategic Management Stakeholder Approach. See note 1 above for a definition of stakeholders.
43. Bowen, Social Responsibilities Businessman.
44. Baret-Bourgoin, Ville industrielle; Bernhardt and Massard-Guibaud, The Modern Demon; Jorland, Société à soigner; Le Roux, Laboratoire pollutions industrielles; Le Roux and Letté, Débordements industriels; Moriceau, Douleurs de l’industrie; Schott et al., Resources of the City; Tarr, Search for Ultimate Sink; Tarr, Devastation and Renewal; Thorsheim, Inventing Pollution.
45. Bernhardt and Massard-Guibaud, The Modern Demon.
46. Rosen, ‘Industrial Ecology Greening History’; Tarr, Search for Ultimate Sink; Tarr, Devastation and Renewal; Uekoetter, ‘Divergent Responses Identical Problems’.
47. Rosen, ‘Industrial Ecology Greening History’.
48. See Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis.
49. Hughes, ‘Electrification of America’; Hughes, Networks of Power. See also Latour, Jamais été modernes.
50. Rosen, ‘Business against Pollution’; Rosen, ‘Industrial Ecology Greening History’; Rosen, ‘Knowing Industrial Pollution’; Rosen and Sellers, ‘Nature of the Firm’; Stradling and Tarr, ‘Environmental Activism’; Uekoetter, ‘Divergent Responses Identical Problems’.
51. Frédéric Le Play (1806–1882) was a French mining engineer, practising Catholic, sociologist, economist and social reformer. His extensive work profoundly influenced social thinking in the nineteenth century and had practical implications throughout the twentieth century as a result of the work of his followers. Le Play’s doctrine is considered as the foundation of the paternalistic system implemented by major French industrial companies in the nineteenth century.
52. de Bry, ‘Le paternalisme entrepreneurial’; Le Play, La Réforme sociale; Le Play, L’organisation du travail; Le Play, Les ouvriers européens; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’.
53. Ballet and de Bry, Entreprise et éthique, 18.
54. Ballet and de Bry, Entreprise et éthique; de Bry, ‘Le paternalisme entrepreneurial’; Gueslin, ‘Le Paternalisme Revisité’; Hommel, ‘Paternalisme et RSE’; Hubert-Valleroux, ‘Patronage’; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’; Lown, Père plutôt que maître; Noiriel, Longwy immigrés et prolétaires.
55. Ballet and de Bry, Entreprise et éthique; de Bry, ‘Le paternalisme entrepreneurial’; de Bry, ‘Concept d’éthique’; Gueslin, ‘Le Paternalisme Revisité’; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’; Noiriel, Longwy immigrés et prolétaires.
56. Détrieux, ‘Les œuvres sociales’; Noiriel, Longwy immigrés et prolétaires; Pigenet, ‘Usine et village’; Schwartz, ‘Pratiques paternalistes’; Vuillermot, ‘Mutualisme et paternalisme’.
57. de Bry, ‘Concept d’éthique’, 104.
58. Bourguinat, ‘Politique sociale Pechiney’; Bourguinat, ‘Développement électrométallurgie Maurienne’; Ewald, ‘L’Etat providence’; Murard and Zylberman, Petit travailleur infatigable.
59. Ballet and de Bry, Entreprise et éthique; Gueslin, ‘Le Paternalisme Revisité’; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’; Noiriel, ‘Du patronage au paternalisme’; Noiriel, Ouvriers société française; Pinçon, ‘Un patronat paternel’.
60. Ballet and de Bry, Entreprise et éthique; Capron, ‘Nouvelles responsabilités sociétales’; Capron and Quairel, La RSE; de Bry, ‘Le paternalisme entrepreneurial’; de Bry, ‘Concept d’éthique’; Hommel, ‘Paternalisme et RSE’; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’.
61. Bourguinat, ‘Politique sociale Pechiney’; Bourguinat, ‘Développement électrométallurgie Maurienne’; Capello, ‘Histoire sociale usines alumine’; Grinberg and Hachez-Leroy, Âge de l’aluminium; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’; Nifle, ‘Conceptions patronat français’; Nifle, ‘Politique personnel ambitieuse’; Vindt, ‘Histoire sociale compagnie Pechiney’; Vindt, ‘Faire Histoire sociale Pechiney’; Vindt, Hommes de l’aluminium.
62. First Pechiney plant created in 1855.
63. Angelier, ‘Usine de Salindres’.
64. Bourguinat, ‘Politique sociale Pechiney’; Bourguinat, ‘Développement électrométallurgie Maurienne’; Doray, ‘Formation et mobilisation’; Ewald, ‘L’Etat providence’; Murard and Zylberman, Petit travailleur infatigable; Perchard, ‘Garden of Eden’; Perchard, ‘Aluminium Production Scottish Highlands’.
65. Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’; Noiriel, Longwy immigrés et prolétaires; Pinot, Œuvres sociales industries métallurgiques; Vindt, Hommes de l’aluminium.
66. Doray, ‘Formation et mobilisation’; Gignoux, Histoire d’une entreprise française; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’; Valette-Tourette, ‘Information en gestation’; Vindt, Hommes de l’aluminium.
67. Vindt, Hommes de l’aluminium, 11.
68. See Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’.
69. See note 1.
70. Boiral, ‘Gestion environnementale usines québecoises’; Boiral, ‘Gestion préventive questions environnementales’; Boullet, ‘Entreprises et environnement’; Boullet, ‘Pechiney et l’environnement’; Donze, ‘Localisation industrie aluminium’; Grinberg, Aluminium léger métal; Grinberg and Mioche, Aluminium de Grèce; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’; Loison and Pezet, ‘Boues rouges Gardanne’; Ménégoz, ‘Protection environnement usines électrolyse’; Ménégoz, ‘Innover protéger l’environnement’.
71. See note 1.
72. Boullet, ‘Pechiney et l’environnement’; Grinberg, Aluminium léger métal; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’; Ménégoz, ‘Protection environnement usines électrolyse’.
73. Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’.
74. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 072-10-21959: AFC Executive Committee meeting minutes of 2 June 1924.
75. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 072-10-21961: AFC Executive Committee meeting minutes of 20 November 1933.
76. Fressoz, ‘Payer pour polluer’; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’.
77. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 072-10-21959: AFC Executive Committee meeting minutes of 2 June 1924.
78. Grinberg, Aluminium léger métal, 46; Ménégoz, ‘Protection environnement usines électrolyse’, 140.
79. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 072-10-21959: AFC Executive Committee meeting minutes of 19 November 1934.
80. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 072-10-21960: AFC Executive Committee meeting minutes of 7 May 1928.
81. Boullet, ‘Pechiney et l’environnement’; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’.
82. Boiral, ‘Gestion préventive questions environnementales’, 2.
83. Larrue, Fria en Guinée.
84. Boullet, ‘Entreprises et environnement’, 339.
85. Grinberg and Mioche, Aluminium de Grèce, 194.
86. For a broader history, see Laparra and Grinberg, Alucam an African Destiny.
87. Girardet, L’idée coloniale; Schuerkens, ‘Développement France coloniale Afrique’.
88. Coquery-Vidrovitch, L’Afrique occidentale; Cross, ‘Bound Together Worlds Apart’; d’Almeida-Topor, L’Afrique du XXe siècle; d’Almeida-Topor and Lakroum, L’Europe et l’Afrique; Frémeaux, Les empires coloniaux; Thobie et al., Histoire France coloniale.
89. Dimier, ‘L’Union Française’; Migani, La France et l’Afrique.
90. This Charter, signed in San Francisco on 26 June 1945, is the constituent treaty of the United Nations. http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-xi
91. The United nations Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance (EPTA) was established in 1949 and the Special Fund in 1958. The EPTA and the Special Fund were merged into the United Nations Development Programme in 1965.
92. Luard, History of United Nations; Stokke, UN and Development.
93. Treaty of Rome establishing the European Economic Community (EEC): http://ec.europa.eu/archives/emu_history/documents/treaties/rometreaty2.pdf
94. Ageron, La décolonisation française; Bertilorenzi, ‘Eurafrique de l’aluminium’; Bitsch and Bossuat, Europe unie et Afrique; d’Almeida-Topor and Lakroum, L’Europe et l’Afrique; Migani, La France et l’Afrique; Schreurs, ‘Eurafrique Traité de Rome’; Stokke, UN and Development.
95. Ageron, La décolonisation française; Atangana, Capitalisme nationalisme Cameroun; d’Almeida-Topor, L’Afrique du XXe siècle; d’Almeida-Topor and Lakroum, L’Europe et l’Afrique; OECE, Investissements territoires d’Outre-mer; Marseille, Empire colonial capitalisme français; Migani, La France et l’Afrique.
96. Ageron, La décolonisation française; d’Almeida-Topor, L’Afrique du XXe siècle; d’Almeida-Topor and Lakroum, L’Europe et l’Afrique; Migani, La France et l’Afrique.
97. See Ageron, La décolonisation française; CHEFF, France et outre-mer; Coquery-Vidrovitch, L’Afrique occidentale; d’Almeida-Topor, L’Afrique du XXe siècle; d’Almeida-Topor and Lakroum, L’Europe et l’Afrique; Marseille, Empire colonial capitalisme français; Migani, La France et l’Afrique; Thobie et al., Histoire France coloniale.
98. Marseille, Empire colonial capitalisme français.
99. Migani, La France et l’Afrique.
100. Laparra and Grinberg, ‘Cameroonisations of Alucam’; Lesclous, Histoires des sites aluminium; Mioche, ‘Cameroon winning streak’; Nedrelid, ‘Histoire succès industriel’.
101. Filippi, ‘La création d’Alucam’; Hachez-Leroy, ‘Marché aluminium Afrique’; Laparra, ‘Enelcam – Alucam’; Laparra, ‘Alucam electrical energy’; Lesclous, Histoires des sites aluminium, 22; Okalla Bana, ‘Electrification du Cameroun’; Okalla Bana, ‘De Pechiney à Alcan’; Okalla Bana, ‘EDF et Cameroun’.
102. Abwa, ‘Alucam Political Development Cameroon’; Filippi, ‘La création d’Alucam’; Laparra and Grinberg, ‘Cameroonisations of Alucam’; Lesclous, Histoires des sites aluminium; Mioche, ‘Cameroon winning streak’; Nedrelid, ‘Histoire succès industriel’.
103. Larrue, Fria en Guinée, 161.
104. Larrue, Fria en Guinée, 258.
105. Morgaut, Un dialogue nouveau; Morgaut, Cinq années de psychologies; Morgaut, L’homme et la création.
106. Barjot and Petitpas, ‘Alcan et Pechiney’; Bertilorenzi, ‘Eurafrique de l’aluminium’; Bertilorenzi, International Aluminium Cartel; Filippi, ‘La création d’Alucam’; Hachez-Leroy, ‘Marché aluminium Afrique’; Laparra and Grinberg, ‘Passing through Cameroon’; Larrue, Fria en Guinée; Lesclous, Histoires des sites aluminium; Nedrelid, ‘Histoire succès industriel’; Petitpas, ‘Filiales françaises Alcan’; Petitpas, ‘Stratégie internationale Alcan’.
107. Barjot, ‘Reconstruire la France’; Filippi, ‘La création d’Alucam’; Laparra, ‘Enelcam – Alucam’; Laparra, ‘Alucam electrical energy’; Okalla Bana, ‘Electrification du Cameroun’; Okalla Bana, ‘De Pechiney à Alcan’; Okalla Bana, ‘EDF et Cameroun’.
108. The Konkouré and the Kouilou are major rivers in Guinea and the Congo, respectively.
109. Laparra and Grinberg, ‘Passing through Cameroon’; Larrue, ‘Fria aspects humains’; Larrue, Fria en Guinée; Lesclous, Histoires des sites aluminium; Mioche, ‘Cameroon winning streak’.
110. Lesclous, Histoires des sites aluminium, 169.
111. Laparra, ‘Enelcam – Alucam’, 183.
112. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 072-10-21964: Executive Committee meeting minutes.
113. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 052-2-26615: Aluminium du Cameroun.
114. Hachez-Leroy, ‘Marché aluminium Afrique’; Lesclous, ‘Electricité et aluminium’; Barjot, ‘Reconstruire la France’; Okalla Bana, ‘Electrification du Cameroun’; Okalla Bana, ‘De Pechiney à Alcan’; Okalla Bana, ‘EDF et Cameroun’.
115. See Barjot, ‘Industrie française travaux publics’; Barjot, ‘Introduction reconstruction économique Europe’; Barjot, Catching Up with America; Barjot and Dreyfus, ‘Impact Marshall Plan’; Bossuat, ‘Aide américaine France’; Bossuat, France aide américaine; Bossuat, ‘Contre-valeur aide américaine’; Bossuat, ‘Origines Plan Marshall; Margairaz, Etat, finances et économie; Margairaz, ‘Finances Plan Monnet’; Milward, Reconstruction of Western Europe.
116. Banal, ‘Plan Marshall électricité’, 264; Bocquentin, ‘Etat industrie aluminium’; Morsel, ‘Pechiney Plan Marshall’, 294.
117. Barjot, ‘Introduction reconstruction économique Europe’; Leroux-Calas, ‘Influence productivity missions’; Morsel, ‘Pechiney Plan Marshall’, 298; Morsel, ‘Mission de productivité’.
118. Lesclous, Histoires des sites aluminium; Morsel, ‘Pechiney Plan Marshall’, 296–98.
119. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 052-2-26615: Aluminium du Cameroun.
120. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 052-2-26615: Aluminium du Cameroun; Pechiney/Alcan archives, 052-2-28073: Aluminium du Cameroun.
121. Pezet, Décision investissement industriel.
122. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 052-2-26615: Aluminium du Cameroun.
123. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 052-2-26615: Aluminium du Cameroun.
124. The Söderberg process uses unbaked anodes that bake directly in the electrolysis bath. This technique was developed before the War and competed with the traditional process of prebaked anodes until the 1960s. See Morel, Histoire technique aluminium.
125. Laparra and Grinberg, ‘Cameroonisations of Alucam’; Lesclous, Histoires des sites aluminium; Morel, Histoire technique aluminium; Pezet, Décision investissement industriel.
126. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 052-2-26215.
127. Larrue, Fria en Guinée; Lesclous, Histoires des sites aluminium; Lesclous, ‘Electricité et aluminium’.
128. Braudel and Labrousse, Histoire économique et sociale, 1102.
129. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 052-2-26215.
130. In France, the acronym ‘X’ refers to the Ecole Polytechnique, an engineering school that trains the nation’s elite. Graduates usually call themselves ‘X’ followed by the year of graduation. The specification of this academic path is significant as the X have a strong historical presence within French industry. This socio-professional group ‘stood out from the traditional forms of capitalism and formed a kind of technocracy that would watch over the destinies of the nation’. Lanthier, ‘Les dirigeants’, 135. The Ecole Polytechnique has been a breeding ground for ‘economic’ engineers committed to grasping economic problems through a methodology that combines a rejection of Malthusianism, a degree of dirigisme in the conduct of economic policies and the use of econometrics and planning. See Dard, ‘Voyage X-crise’; Dard, Jean Coutrot; Lanthier, ‘Les dirigeants’; Margairaz, ‘Autodictactes et experts’; Meynaud, Technocratie Mythe ou Réalité.
131. Decker, ‘Corporate political activity’.
132. Abwa, ‘Alucam Political Development Cameroon’; Filippi, ‘La création d’Alucam’; Nedrelid, ‘Histoire succès industriel’.
133. IHA archives, 05-1-502-Béguin 99: report on psychological studies in Africa (1956–1957).
134. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 001-14-20469: memorandum on the effects of Alucam’s operations on the social and human development of Cameroun, 22 February 1957.
135. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 001-14-20469: memorandum on the effects of Alucam’s operations on the social and human development of Cameroun, 22 February 1957.
136. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 001-14-20469: memorandum on the effects of Alucam’s operations on the social and human development of Cameroun, 22 February 1957.
137. IHA archives, J. Henry collection, Ref. 2 000 001 001 Alucam: 32-page internal memorandum on aluminium, 24 August 1970.
138. Carbonell, ‘Aluminium in Cameroon’; Laparra and Grinberg, ‘Cameroonisations of Alucam’; Lesclous, Histoires des sites aluminium; Mioche, ‘Cameroon winning streak’; Nedrelid, ‘Histoire succès industriel’.
139. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 05-1-502-BEGUIN 99: leaflet on the Alucam Edéa plant, 1965.
140. Agier, ‘Formation milieux ouvriers’, 242–46; Dikoumé, ‘Century of Social Relations’; Filippi, ‘La création d’Alucam’; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’.
141. Filippi, ‘La création d’Alucam’, 137. ‘Editorial’. Alucam Bulletin, No. 1 (July–August 1958).
142. Filippi, ‘La création d’Alucam’; Gignoux, Histoire d’une entreprise française; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’; Vindt, Hommes de l’aluminium.
143. Beaud et al., Une multinationale française PUK; Filippi, ‘La création d’Alucam’; Laparra and Grinberg, ‘Cameroonisations of Alucam’; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’.
144. Agier, ‘Formation milieux ouvriers’, 252; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’.
145. Guyana after 1969.
146. Cross, ‘Bound Together Worlds Apart’; Iguarta, Arvida au Saguenay; Morisset, Arvida cité industrielle.
147. Larrue, ‘Fria aspects humains’.
148. Laparra and Grinberg, ‘Cameroonisations of Alucam, 68. Alucam Bulletin, No. 45 (1965), 16–18.
149. Laparra and Grinberg, ‘Cameroonisations of Alucam, 68.
150. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 001-14-20469: memorandum concerning the Edéa project, S.E.C.E.M.A.E.U. (Venthon plant), 26 February 1954.
151. Dikoumé, ‘Century of Social Relations’; Filippi, ‘La création d’Alucam’; Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’.
152. IHA Archives, 05-1-502-BEGUIN 99: talk on adapting and leading the African workforce in modern industrial activities by Jean-Claude Béguin at the Pechiney Supervisors’ Training Centre, February – March 1959.
153. Dikoumé, ‘Century of Social Relations’; Filippi, ‘La création d’Alucam’; Morgaut, Un dialogue nouveau; Nedrelid, ‘Histoire succès industriel’.
154. IHA Archives, 05-1-502-BEGUIN 99: talk on adapting and leading the African workforce in modern industrial activities by Jean-Claude Béguin at the Pechiney Supervisors’ Training Centre, February–March 1959.
155. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 052-2-26221: connected companies, subsidiaries and equity investments.
156. Dikoumé, ‘Century of Social Relations’; Doray, ‘Formation et mobilisation’; Nedrelid, ‘Histoire succès industriel’.
157. Lebeurre and Ferey, ‘Processus formation qualifiante’.
158. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 001-14-20469: memorandum on the administrative organisation of the Edéa plant, 7 October 1954.
159. Filippi, ‘La création d’Alucam’, 189. Memorandum issued by Alucam’s management on 22 February 1957.
160. Nedrelid, ‘Histoire succès industriel’.
161. Laparra and Grinberg, ‘Cameroonisations of Alucam, 68. Alucam Bulletin, No. 45 (1965), 16–18.
162. Filippi, ‘La création d’Alucam’, 242. Pechiney/Alcan archives, annual reports, 1961–1967 and 1972–1974.
163. Alu Tam-Tam, employees’ magazine, Nos 10 and 11 (March 1979). Louis Ngounou was appointed administrative deputy manager in 1975, then secretary general of Alucam in 1979.
164. Dikoumé, ‘Century of Social Relations’; Nedrelid, ‘Histoire succès industriel’.
165. Laparra and Grinberg, ‘Cameroonisations of Alucam’; Morel, Histoire technique aluminium.
166. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 90-8-501-IHA 11/28: memorandum No.109 dated 8 August 1973 from E. Ravier.
167. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 90-8-501-IHA 11/28: letter from B. Crétin dated 21 August 1973 (replying to memorandum No.109 dated 8 August 1973).
168. Pechiney/Alcan archives, 001-1-8-39360: letter dated 4 November 1975.
169. Memorandum from Maurice Laparra to the authors dated 25 July 2007.
170. Article on the aluminium industry in Cameroon: ‘Une industrie de l’aluminium au Cameroun’, Jalons (March 1982).
171. Laparra and Grinberg, ‘Cameroonisations of Alucam’, 65.
172. Rio Tinto-Alcan completed the sale of its 46.67% share in Alucam to the Government of Cameroon on 31 December 2014. See Rio Tinto-Alcan annual reports and sustainable development reports (2011-2014): http://www.riotinto.com. See also Alucam website: http://www.groupealucam.com/nos-engagements
173. Alucam-Rio Tinto Alcan report entitled ‘52 years of partnership in Cameroon through the JV Alucam with historical contribution to the hydro energy sector and the Country’s development’ (January 2010): http://www.riotintoalcan.com/documents/Communities_Cameroon_2011_52yearsPartnershipWithAlucam_EN.pdf
174. Berger and Luckmann, Social Construction of Reality; Hasselbladh and Kallinikos, ‘Project of Rationalization’.
175. Moquet and Pezet, ‘Technologies responsabilité sociétale’.
176. Pezet, Décision investissement industriel.
177. Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’; Pezet, Décision investissement industriel.
178. Pechiney was bought out by Alcan, in turn taken over by Rio Tinto, which has since fallen prey to a partial takeover by Chinalco and BHP.
179. Loison, ‘Histoire responsabilité sociétale’.
180. Although Alucam is unlikely to be the sole historical case of CSR before the 1990s, further research is needed to identify other ‘prototypes’.
181. Grandin, Fordlandia.
182. United Nations, Brundtland Report.
183. Capron and Quairel, La RSE.
184. Matten and Moon, ‘Implicit and Explicit CSR’, 404.