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ABSTRACT
This article explores how the post-socialist media discussed and propagated one of the first separatist conflicts after the collapse of the USSR. It focuses on the 1992 Transnistrian war and explores two conflicting perspectives: Moldovan and Transnistrian perceptions of those involved in the war. The chronological frame is limited to the period of direct combat. The analysis centres on newspapers published at the time by both rival camps. Transnistria’s war for independence represents a good case in point for how pro-Russian separatism challenges sovereignty and impedes nation-building in post-Soviet states. The author examines the discourse of local newspapers, focusing on the portrayal of domestic and foreign “heroes” and “villains.” He argues that although the newspapers of both sides used a similar lexicon to dehumanize the adversary, in doing so, they relied on different ideological clichés. Transnistrians employed the Soviet paradigm of the “friendship of peoples” and exploited the collective memory of the past. Moldovans relied on emerging Moldovan patriotism and appealed to pan-Romanian nationalism. This study enhances our understanding of the media war and demonstrates how both old and new ideological clichés shaped its discourses during a confrontation where one side resisted separatism, while the other fought for self-determination.
RÉSUMÉ
L’article examine comment les médias post-socialistes ont discuté et propagé un des premiers conflits séparatistes suivant l’effondrement de l’URSS. Il porte sur la guerre de Transnistrie de 1992 et examine deux perspectives contradictoires : les perceptions moldaves et transnistriennes de ceux qui étaient impliqués dans la guerre. La trame chronologique se limite à la période du combat direct. L’analyse se concentre sur les journaux publiés à l’époque par les deux camps rivaux. La guerre d’indépendance de la Transnistrie représente un bon exemple de la façon dont le séparatisme pro-russe conteste la souveraineté et entrave la construction de la nation dans les états post-soviétiques. L’auteur étudie le discours des journaux régionaux, se concentrant sur la représentation des « héros » et des « méchants » nationaux et étrangers. Bien que les journaux des deux camps utilisaient un lexique similaire pour déshumaniser l’adversaire, ce faisant, ils appuyaient sur des clichés idéologiques différents. Les Transnistriens employaient le paradigme soviétique de « l’amitié des peuples » et profitaient de la mémoire collective du passé. Les Moldaves appuyaient sur le patriotisme moldave émergent et faisaient appel au nationalisme pan-roumain. L’article permet de mieux comprendre la guerre des médias et démontre comment les vieux et les nouveaux clichés idéologiques ont façonné le discours des médias au cours d’un conflit où un camp s’opposait au séparatisme, tandis que l’autre camp luttait pour l’auto-détermination.
Acknowledgments
An earlier draft of this paper was discussed at the East Europeanists’ circle led by Professor Heather Coleman at the Department of History and Classics, University of Alberta. I thank all participants for constructive remarks and suggestions. I would like to thank Mr. Wade Matkea, a former UN Peacekeeper in Bosnia, for his valuable comments. I am also deeply grateful to the editorial team of Canadian Slavonic Papers/Revue canadienne des slavistes and to the anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions and feedback which improved this piece immensely.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1. Sayin and Modebadze, “Russian–Ukrainian Conflict.”
2. See Cornell, Small Nations and Great Powers; Wolczuk, Moulding of Ukraine. For the sake of clarity, the terms “Republic of Moldova” and “post-Soviet Moldova” define the successor state of the Moldavian SSR. The Dniester River divides the country into two unequal parts. Territories that the central government in Chisinau administers are referred to here as “Moldova” or “right-bank Moldova.” The breakaway region is referred to as “Transnistria,” the “Transnistrian Moldovan Republic,” and the “TMR.”
3. The international print media is not the object of this research.
4. Allan, News Culture, 196.
5. Ibid.
6. Balabanova, Media, Wars and Politics, 17, 55.
7. Russ-Mohl, “Coverage of Terrorism,” 221.
8. Wachman, “Did Abraham Lincoln Oppose,” 361.
9. Norman, Negotiating Nationalism, 16; Farnen, “Nationality, Ethnicity, Political Socialization,” 58; Anderson, Imagined Communities, 167.
10. Wimmer, Nation Building; Barrera and Zugasti, “Role of the Press,” 19; Hall, “Reconsidering Western Concepts.”
11. Keller, Ultimate Spectacle, 251. See Andersen, Century of Media; Hoskins and Loughlin, War and Media; Hamelink, Media and Conflict; Kolstø, Media Discourse; Spencer, Separatism; Allen and Seaton, Media of Conflict; Lynch, Engaging Eurasia’s Separatist State.
12. See Taylor, Global Communications, passim.
13. “Transcript of Obama’s Remarks.”
14. Wolfsfeld, Media and Political Conflict, 2.
15. Cohen, Press and Foreign Policy, 13.
16. Thompson, Forging War, 2.
17. Badsey, “Media War,” 219.
18. McQuail, “Influence and Effects,” 90.
19. Jackaway, Media at War, 8.
20. Stauber, “War and the Public Sphere,” 19.
21. See Hibberd, Media in Italy, 6.
22. See Schwartz and Panossian, Nationalism and History; Bremmer and Taras, New States, New Politics; Isaacs and Polese, Nation Building and Identity.
23. Jackson, Russian Foreign Policy, 162.
24. Mandelbaum, New Russian Foreign Policy; Ioffe, Global Studies.
25. See Ciobanu, Frozen and Forgotten Conflicts; Solchanyk, Ukraine and Russia; Mitaev, Managing Secessionist Conflicts; Walter, von Ungern-Sternberg, and Abushov, Self-Determination and Secession.
26. Laitin, Identity in Formation; Kuzio, Ukraine-Crimea-Russia, 51–9.
27. Herpen, Putin’s Wars; Caspersen, Unrecognized States.
28. Oganjanyan, August War in Georgia, 1; Niedermaier, Countdown to War; Goble, “Defining Victory and Defeat.”
29. Yekelchyk, Conflict in Ukraine, 6–9; Kuzio, Ukraine, passim; Bebler, “Crimea”; and Shirmammadov, “How Does the International Community.”
30. Galeotti, “Hybrid War.”
31. Fedor, “Introduction,” 1.
32. Ibid., 3, 4.
33. See King, Moldovenii; Kolstø, National Integration; Hughes and Sasse, Ethnicity and Territory; Sanchez, “‘Frozen’ Southeast”; Troebst, “‘Transdniestrian Moldovan Republic’”; Wolff, “Resolvable Frozen Conflict?”
34. See Wilson, Ukraine Crisis; Ostrovsky, Invention of Russia; Kalb, Imperial Gamble.
35. Television coverage is not the focus of this research.
36. According to the Soviet census, in 1989 Chisinau had a population of 667,082; Tiraspol had 181,862 inhabitants. City Population, “Moldova. Cities and Towns.”
37. The Moldovans call it “Tighina,” that is, the name they gave to this locality before the Ottomans changed it to “Bender” in the sixteenth century. To the Transnistrians it remained as “Bendery,” the name kept both by the tsarist and Soviet authorities. Depending on the context, this work uses “Tighina” and “Bendery.”
38. Dubăsari is a town located on the left bank of the Dniester River, in the middle of the TMR; if the Moldovans had managed to take control of it, this would have divided the TMR into two unconnected parts. Tighina-Bendery is a town located on the right bank of the Dniester River; however, it was influenced by the idea of separating from Moldova and became an outpost of Transnistria.
39. The situation has not changed since then. During fieldwork the author saw no selling of Moldova’s newspapers in the TMR and of the latter in the territory of the former.
40. It was only later, in 1994, that Tiraspol sanctioned the publication of the government-controlled Adevărul Nistrian (Dniester truth), a Cyrillic-scripted Romanian-language newspaper. See “‘Adevărul Nistrean’ marchează 15 ani de la înfiinţare,” All Moldova. Știri, 11 July 2009. Accessed 12 December 2017. http://www.allmoldova.com/ro/news/adevrul-nistrean-marcheaz-15-ani-de-la-nfiinare
41. V. Zherebtsov, “Vrag v stolitse,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 1–7 April 1992, 1; O. Kondorovskaia, “A vy, druz'ia, kak ne sadites',” Zaria Pridnestrov'ia, 16 January 1992, 3; Ursu, Râul de sânge, 63.
42. See “Obrashchenie zhitelei goroda Kishineva,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 25 March–1 April 1992, 1; D. Iavorskii, “Rasskaz perebezhchika,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 23–29 July 1992, 2; Glorii Chumak, “Pod iarmom rumynizatsii,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 23–29 July 1992, 2.
43. Registrul de stat al actelor juridice al Republicii Moldova, “Republica Moldova.”
44. Solonar and Bruter, “Russians in Moldova,” 89, fn. 46.
45. “Cine ne-a furat Moldova Suverană?” Timpul.MD, 17 February 2010. Accessed 27 November 2017. http://www.timpul.md/articol/cine-ne-a-furat-moldova-suverana-6687.html
46. “Sovetskaia Moldavia,” Bol'shaia Sovetskaia entsiklopedia. Accessed 27 November 2017.http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/bse/133818. This newspaper provides no information about its circulation. The cited source, however, mentions 164,000 copies per issue.
47. Leonida Lari, “Precuvântare,” Glasul, 15 February 1989, 1.
48. I discuss this detail later.
49. Vasile Năstase, then deputy editor of the publication, to the author via email, 3 July 2016. See also Media Azi. Accessed 27 November 2017. http://media-azi.md/en/node/13122
50. Trudovoi Tiraspol', 24 June–1 July 1992, 4.
51. Ozhiganov, “Republic of Moldova,” 154. Benderskie Vedomosti, 14 April 1992, 4.
52. City Population,“Moldova. Cities and Towns”; Zarea Pridnestrov'ia, 25 July 1992, 4.
53. Kolstø and Edemsky, Russians in the Former Soviet Republics, 156.
54. For a description of the differences that existed between these elites see King, Moldovenii, 138–42.
55. IgorMunteanu, “Social Multipolarity,” 212. Also, Ion Mardari, “Ne zabudem o korniakh svoikh,” Evreiskoe mestechko, 13 July 2007. Accessed 12 December 2017. http://www.dorledor.info/node/8396
56. The mutual intelligibility of the Moldovan and Romanian languages was and is a geopolitical matter rather than a purely linguistic one. Moldovan is the same as Romanian, but written with an alphabet based on Russian Cyrillic. The Soviets enforced Cyrillic to make Moldovan different from (Latin) Romanian. After 1991, the pro-Russia-oriented Moldovan and Transnistrian politicians and scholars claimed that Cyrillic was the only script that fit Moldovan. Their Romanian and pro-Western-oriented Moldovan counterparts consider that there is only the Romanian language, whereas Moldovan is a political invention. See Fouse, Languages of the Former Soviet Republics, 89–94.
57. King, Extreme Politics, 108–9.
58. The TMSSR was renamed the Transnistrian Moldavian Republic (TMR) in November 1991.
59. Gryzlov, Nepriznannaia respublika, Tom 1, 194–6, 204–9; “V Pridnestrov'e vooruzhaiutsia!” Pravda Ukrainy, 30 September 1991, 3; Smirnov, Zhit' na svoei zemle, 79.
60. Kalyvas, Logic of Violence, 75.
61. Safonov, V parlamente Moldovy, 39.
62. Ibid., 39–43.
63. Bilyi, “Political Discourse in Mass Communication,” 87.
64. Molcean and Verständig, “Moldova: The Transnistrian Conflict,” 131.
65. “Kishinev: situatsiia normalizuetsia,” Vechernii Kishinev, 27 November 1990, 1.
66. “O narusheniiakh obshchestvennogo poriadka v g. Kishineve 15.11.1990,” Vechernii Kishinev, 27 November 1990, 1. A follow up of this article was not found.
67. Bomeshko, Sozdanie, stanovlenie, 174–6.
68. Grecu, O viziune, 37–43.
69. AnatolMunteanu, Sacrificiu și trădare, 622–3; Babilunga, “Agressiia Moldovy protiv PMR,” 156–7.
70. Wallander, Mortal Friends, Best Enemies, 141.
71. Snegur, Labirintul Destinului. Memorii, vol. 2, 502–3, 564; Kostash, Dni zatmeniia, 418. Only a very limited number of Romanians participated in the war. See Baidaus, “Nation-Building and Separatism,” 141–205.
72. There were some 1000 casualties, 51,000 internal displaced persons and about 80,000 refugees. Dura, “EU and Moldova’s Third Sector,” 76.
73. Kruglashov and Tkachyov, “European Union and Transnistrian Conflict,” 147.
74. “Pe linia întâi,” Moldova Suverană, 9 April 1992, 1; “Apelul bărbaților din tranșee,” Moldova Suverană, 9 May 1992, 1.
75. “Mercenarii în așteptarea pradei,” Moldova Suverană, 5 March 1992, 1–2; “Stagiile minciunii,” Moldova Suverană, 12 March 1992, 2; “Condamnăm acțiunile banditești,” Moldova Suverană, 19 March 1992, 2.
76. “Separatiștii ocrotiți de armată,” Moldova Suverană, 24 March 1992, 3; “Savanții condamnă genocidul,” Moldova Suverană, 28 March 1992, 1; “Transnistria: feciorii neamului stau scut în calea kazacilor și mercenarilor smirnoviști,” Moldova Suverană, 26 March 1992, 1; “Moldova va fi liberă,” Moldova Suverană, 31 March 1992, 4.
77. “Apelul bărbaților din tranșee,” Moldova Suverană, 21 May 1992, 1; “În țara ta dușmanul te poate omorî, învinge însă – niciodată,” Moldova Suverană, 26 May 1992, 2; “Agresiune împotriva Republicii Moldova,” Moldova Suverană, 23 June 1992, 1.
78. “Ei apără integritatea Republicii Moldova,” Moldova Suverană, 19 March 1992, 2; “Ei au căzut pentru integritatea Republicii Moldova,” Moldova Suverană, 21 March 1992, 2; “Călăii,” Moldova Suverană, 4 April 1992, 3; “Agresiune imperială. Criminalii devin gardiști,” Moldova Suverană, 7 April 1992, 2.
79. Eleonora Voloshchuk, “Ne ubivaite zhizn',” Nezavisimaia Moldova, 4 March 1992, 1; A. Akimov, “Dubasar': voina prishla vesnoi,” Nezavisimaia Moldova, 11 March 1992, 1; Nikolai Savostin, “Kogo zashchishchaiut kazaki? Russkikh?” Nezavisimaia Moldova, 21 March 1992, 2.
80. “Konflikt v Pridnestrov'e mozhno razreshit' mirnym putem,” Nezavisimaia Moldova, 19 March 1992, 1; Mariia Tsesliuk, “Ravnaia obiazannost' – ostanovit' voinu!” Nezavisimaia Moldova, 16 April 1992, 1; K. Gyrlovanu, F. Ravlo, “Iskat' put' k primireniiu,” Nezavisimaia Moldova, 23 April 1992, 3.
81. Romania and Romanians were more described by the nationalistic media, a question I discuss below.
82. The UNA-UNSO was a right-wing nationalistic organization. See Solchanyk, “Radical Right in Ukraine,” 279, 287–8.
83. Vasile Bârlădeanu-Bârladnic, “Procurorului general al Ucrainei,” Moldova Suverană, 20 May 1992, 3; “Odessa. Zapreshcheno sobranie UNA,” Nezavisimaia Moldova, 9 July 1992, 1.
84. “Ot pana Kuzyka – Prezidentu panu Sneguru. Telegramma,” Nezavisimaia Moldova, 2 July 1992, 1.
85. On Rukh, see Onuch, Mapping Mass Mobilization, 71.
86. Sergey Romanov, “Protiv agresii Rossii,” Nezavisimaia Moldova, 29 July 1992, 1.
87. Larisa Skorik, “‘PMR’ sozdana po stsenariiu imperskogo tsentra,” Suverennaia Moldova. Daidzhest, 19 June, 1992, 2. Also, Iurii Orlik, Inga Prelovskaia, “Samostoiatel'nost' Kryma provozglashenna ego parlamentom, no dolzhna byt' podtverzhdena referendumom,” Izvestia, 7 May 1992, 1.
88. P.G., “Grazhdane Ukrainy ne dolzhny voevat' v Moldove,” Nezavisimaia Moldova, 30 June 1992, 1.
89. “Declarație a Ligii Democrat-Creștine a Femeiilor din Moldova cu privire la evenimentele din stânga Nistrului,” Glasul Națiunii, 6 March 1992, 2.
90. Ibid.
91. Ibid.
92. “Din Declarația Președintelui Frontului Popular Creștin-Democrat M. Druc,” Glasul Națiunii, 3 April 1992, 2.
93. Mihai Vicol, “Hotărâți să moară dar sa nu se retragă,” Glasul Națiunii, 26 June 1992, 2.
94. Vasile Năstase, Ion Gonța, “Transnistria: gloanțe, flăcări și sânge,” Glasul Națiunii, 27 March 1992, 3.
95. Ibid.; Andrei Constantin, “Acceptarea anormalității,” Glasul Națiunii, 3 April 1992, 8; Nicolae Roibu, “Capitala Transnistriei – București?” Glasul Națiunii, 26 June 1992, 10.
96. “Românie, Patrie-mamă, nu ne lăsa iarăși pradă barbarilor ruși!” Glasul Națiunii, 5 June 1992, 3; Rada Stoian, “Du-te acasă, măi, cazace! Dacă nu te duci tu viu, te trimit eu, în sicriu!” Glasul Națiunii, 19 June 1992, 1; “Cronologia măcelului. Armata rusească de pe fața imperiului,” Glasul Națiunii, 26 June 1992, 3; Andrei Constantin, “Acceptarea anormalității,” Glasul Națiunii, 3 April 1992, 8.
97. Ion Gonța, “Nesățioasa Rusie,” Glasul Națiunii, 26 June 1992, 1.
98. “Cât de mare este Ucraina?” Glasul Națiunii, 17 April 1992, 7; Andrei Constantin, “Moldova și hotarele ei istorice,” Glasul Națiunii, 11 September 1992, 10.
99. “Cât de mare este Ucraina?” Glasul Națiunii, 17 April 1992, 7.
100. I.N.V. “Generalul Ruțkoi își asumă riscul…,” Glasul Națiunii, Chisinău-București, 10 April 1992, 2.
101. “Iunie 1940 – ocupație Sovietică, Iunie 1992 – război rusesc,” Glasul Națiunii, 26 June 1992, 1.
102. Dr. Antonie Plămădeală, “Patria,” Glasul Națiunii, 1 May 1992, 1.
103. Ibid.
104. “Românie, Patrie-mamă, nu ne lăsa iarăși pradă barbarilor ruși!” Glasul Națiunii, 5 June 1992, 3.
105. “România și Moldova sânt două case în aceeași curte,” Glasul Națiunii, 28 August 1992, 2.
106. “Vstat' na zashchitu PMR,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 19 March 1992, 1; “V zashchitu Pridnestrov'ia,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 30 June 1992, 1.
107. “Ostanovite genotsid,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 8 July 1992, 1; “Spina moia pochuvstvovala silu nagaiki rumyna…,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 4 April 1992, 5; “V Rumyniiu ne poidem…,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 28 March 1992, 2.
108. Nekto Lakomiak, “Gomo rumynus?” Zaria Pridnestrov'ia, 20 February 1992, 1.
109. None of the hundreds of the articles this author collected and worked with had such lists.
110. “Ne zabudem!” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 23 June 1992, 1; “Khronika agressii: Ne zabudem! Ne prostim!” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 27 June 1992, 5; “Skorb' Pridnestrov'ia,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 6 March 1992, 2; “Vechnaia pamiat' geroiam,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 1–7 April 1992, 2.
111. “Skorb' Pridnestrov'ia,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 6 March 1992, 2
112. “Vechnaia pamiat' geroiam,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 1–7 April 1992, 2.
113. R. Movil', “Liudi ne ot mira sego,” Zaria Pridnestrov'ia, 31 March 1992, 1; “Polittribuna,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 28 March 1992, 7; “Mircea Snegur: Voevat' – tak na dva fronta,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 28 May 1992, 1.
114. “Tragicheskie dni Pridnestrov'ia,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 27 May–3 June 1992, 2.
115. S. Kartavyi, “Moskvichi s nami,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 20–27 May 1992, 1.
116. “Pis'mo iz Kishineva: Veriu v vashu pobedu,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 2 July 1992, 2.
117. V. Zherebtsov, “Vrag v stolitse,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 1–7 April 1992, 1; O. Kondorovskaia, “A vy, druz'ia, kak ne sadites',” Zaria Pridnestrov'ia’, 16 January 1992, 3.
118. V. Zherebtsov, “Vrag v stolitse,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 1–7 April 1992, 1.
119. P. Shornikov, “Demokratiia predpolagaet terpimost',” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 22 April 1992, 1; “Spisok voennoobiazannykh, ukloniaiushchikhsia ot prizyva (na 23.06.1002),” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 1–8 July 1992, 4; Ursu, Râul de sânge, 63.
120. “Pozdravleniia komandiru,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 4 August 1992, 2; Galina Baranchuk, “‘Zharkoe’ leto Pridnestrov'ia,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 4 August 1992, 2; D. Kondratov, “Nashe delo pravoe,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 25 March–1 April 1992, 2; L. Kolycheva, “Po stsenariiu fashizma,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 3 April 1992, 5; V. Maslennikov, “Khronika neob'iavlennoi voiny,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 5 March 1992, 1.
121. “Pozdravleniia komandiru,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 4 August 1992, 2; “Zametki zhurnalista. Bendery,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 22 July 1992, 2; N. Babilunga, “Poboites' Boga, domnul Brodskii!” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 19 June 1992, 2; V. Maslennikov, “Ugolovniki idut… v razvedku,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 28 March 1992, 1; “Srochno v nomer: Ne utikhomirilis',” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 4 March 1992, 1; V. Maslennikov, “Vazhnye podrobnosti,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 4 March 1992, 1; “V podderzhku komanduiushchego,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 8 July 1992, 1.
122. V. Maslennikov, “Khronika neob'iavlennoi voiny,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 5 March 1992, 1; Galina Baranchuk, “‘Zharkoe’ leto Pridnestrov'ia,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 4 August 1992, 2; “Zametki zhurnalista. Bendery,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 22 July 1992, 2; G. Ganina, “Kazach'ia mat' Aleksandra Zaruba: ‘Ia seichas vsiiu stranu schitaiu Pridnestrov'em’,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 7 July 1992, 4.
123. A. Lebed', “Na etu blagodatnuiu zemliu legla ten' fashizma,” Dnestrovskii Meredian, 10 July 1992, 2.
124. Salisbury, 900 Days, 119.
125. V. Iakovlev, “Tochka zreniia: ‘Drang Nach Osten’,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 18 June 1992, 2.
126. V. Plekhanov, “Nevol'nye paralleli,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 7 May 1992, 3; “I nam zaveshchano…,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 7 May 1992, 3.
127. “V etikh pis'makh – golos Pridnestrov'ia,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 28 March 1992, 3.
128. A. Platitsyn, “Zhivi i pomni: Getto,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 21 March 1992, 6.
129. See Dumitru, “Through the Eyes.”
130. “V etikh pis'makh – golos Pridnestrov'ia,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 28 March 1992, 3.
131. “A. Sumchinskaia: Spina moia pochuvstvovala silu nagaiki rumyna,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 4 April 1992, 5.
132. “Idet voina narodnaia,” Dnestrovskii Meridian, 3 April 1992, 1; “Otstupat' ne kuda, za nami – referendum,” Dnestrovskii Meridian, 3 April 1992, 1–2; “Fashizm ne proidet!” Dnestrovskii Meridian, 21–27 August 1992, 1; Evdokimov et al., “Telegramma,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 24 June–1 July 1992, 1.
133. Combs and Combs, Film Propaganda, 49–50.
134. Brandenberger, National Bolshevism, 103, 164–5.
135. Combs and Combs, Film Propaganda, 49.
136. Evdokimov et al., “Telegramma,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 24 June–1 July 1992, 1.
137. “Pavlov House” was an apartment block in which Red Army soldiers resisted for almost two months against the Wehrmacht’s offensive in the Battle for Stalingrad. It became a symbol of courage and devotion to the Motherland. See Roberts, Victory at Stalingrad, 97; A. Faliterik, “Bendery – Stalingrad segodnia,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 22–29 July 1992, 2; “Zametki zhurnalista. Bendery,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 22 July 1992, 2; “Oni srazhalis' za Bendery,” Foto V. Kruglikova, Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 23 July 1992, 1.
138. See “Agresinunea împotriva Republicii Moldova,” Moldova Suverană, 23 June 1992, 1; M. Bazhutina, “V Bender gvardiia streliaet v politseiskikh i mirnykh zhitelei,” Nezavisimaia Moldova, 20 June 1992, 1.
139. G. Marinov, “Doroga zhizni: Rossiia – Pridnestrov'e,” Dnestrovskii Meridian, 10 July 1992, 4.
140. “Vyderzhat', vyzhit' i zhiti,” Interview with Igor Smirnov, Dnestrovskii Meridian, 20 March 1992, 1; “Etot den' pobedy…,” Dnestrovskii Meridian, 17 April 1992, 2; “Den' Pobedy,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 12 May 1992, 1; S. Frunki, “Vechnaia pamiat' geroiam!” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 1–7 April 1992, 2.
141. Polyudova, Soviet War Songs, 69–71.
142. Ibid., 64.
143. “Arise, the Great Country!” See Kostash, Dni zatmeniia, 399; A. Safonov, “Miting na Manezhnoi,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 19–26 February 1992, 1. On the significance of this song, see Petrova and Boltunova, Samyi pamiatnyi den' voiny, 133, 349. It is worth mentioning that separatists in eastern Ukraine used the same song during an event that one may call the “parade of shame.” Thus, in August 2014 they forced Ukraine’s imprisoned servicemen to march through the streets of Donets'k as Nazi prisoners of war were made to do in Moscow in 1944. See “24 avgusta v Donetske proshel antifashistskii miting.” Video. Accessed 10 April 2018. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GSaktJG3l6E
144. G. Lapchatyi, “Domnulam khikhikaiushchim,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 27 May–3 June 1992, 3.
145. Zemtsov, Encyclopedia of Soviet Life, 252.
146. Brandenberger, National Bolshevism, 215.
147. “Bogatyrskaia nasha sila” (Our strength is that of warriors) was a 1980 song by a Russian band led by Stas Namin. Accessed 10 April 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dgUIk7dqyfY&list=PLQWEesGzh1hfGEdmPKrLsODPWugXzNTNw&index=3
148. Szporluk, Russia, Ukraine, and the Breakup, xxi and 187.
149. Author’s personal account. This song is still performed by servicemen in today’s Russia. See “Rossiia liubimaia moia.” Video. Accessed 12 April 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aojN6Bnt9_U
150. Grigas, Beyond Crimea, 93 and chapter 4.
151. Kobylianskaia, Sagadieva, Titova, Kuznetsova et al., “Rossiia Pomogi!,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 29 April–6 May 1992, 1; S. Frunze, “Rossiia nasha nadezhda,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 18–25 April 1992, 1.
152. S. Karkhanin, “Kazaki prinimaiut boi. Za Dnestrom – rossiiskaia zemlia,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 25 March–1 April 1992, 3.
153. The song was “S chego nachinaetsia Rodina” from the Soviet movie The Shield and the Sword (1968); I. Nevskii, “Nasha Rodina nachinaetsia v okopah Pridnestrov'ia!” Zaria Pridnestrov'ia, 22 July 1992, 1.
154. N. Ganina, “Ia seichas vsiu stranu schitaiu Pridnestrov'em,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 7 July 1992, 4.
155. “Otstoim Pridnestrov'e!” Photo, Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 7 April 1992, 1
156. “Khronika agressii,” Photo, Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 23 June 1992, 1.
157. “14 armia opredelila svoi pozitsii,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 13 April 1992, 1; Aleksandr Kakotkin, “Pridnestrovskaia Republika byla i budet!” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 11 April 1992, 1; “General Aleksandr Lebed': Sil'no, spravedlivo, po-Russki! Ot t'my k svetu,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 27 June 1992, 1; “Pozitsia – Nravstvennost',” Dnestrovskii Meridian, 1 May 1992, 2.
158. “Vozrozhdenie prichernomorskogo kazachestva,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 4 April 1992, 4; Vladimir Polushin, “Pridnestrovie v luchakh tysiachilietii. 2. Strana kazakov,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 18 July 1992, 7.
159. “Kazak ukhodil, ukhodil na voinu…,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 19 March 1992, 1.
160. See also: “V poslednii i dal'nii put',” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 24 March 1992, 1.
161. Ozhiganov, “Crimean Republic,” 100.
162. “Kto est' kto. I eto kazaki?” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 1–7 April 1992, 3. Also in Chisinau-based print media, “Și cazacii sânt diferiți!” Moldova Suverană, 31 January 1992, 3.
163. Florina Chernysh et al., “Brat'iam kazakam – spasibo!” Zaria Pridnestrov'ia, 31 March 1992, 1.
164. See also “Voin Rossiiskoi armii, spasi!” Dnestrovskii Meredian, 26 June 1992, 1.
165. This fact surfaced later in the memoirs of Igor Smirnov and Mikhail Bergman. See Smirnov, Zhit' na svoei zemle, 84; Epur and Bergman, Komendant ada 25/20, 373. During the war Bergman served as Russia’s military commander of Tiraspol.
166. “Zaiavlenie Russkogo Natsional'nogo Sobora ‘O polozhenii v Pridnestrov'e,’” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 20–27 May 1992, 1.
167. Leonid Eggy, “Slovo k panu Kravchuku,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 19 March 1992, 1.
168. Ibid.
169. I. Kornii, “Ukraintsam v'ezd zapershchen!” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 27 May–3 June 1992, 1.
170. “Pridnestrov'e i Krym,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 3 June 1992, 1.
171. “Zaiavlenie grazhdanskogo kongerssa Ukrainy,” Dnestrovskii Meridian, 12 June 1992, 1.
172. “Obrashchenie donetskogo oblastnogo Soveta narodnykh deputatov,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 5–12 August 1992, 1; A. Voronkova, “Dni ukrainskoi kul'tury,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 19 March 1992, 1.
173. Yekelchyk, Stalin’s Empire of Memory, 108–9, 131–2.
174. A. Solov'ev, “ Prosnites', grazhdane Velikoi Ukrainy!” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 24 June– 1 July 1992, 4.
175. “Unesennye voinoi,” Dnestrovskii Meridian, 26 June 1992, 3.
176. “Khot' vsekh sviatykh,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 1–7 April 1992, 3. “Banderovites” is a pejorative term for nationalists in Western Ukraine who fought against the Soviets and the Germans during the Second World War, and resisted Moscow militarily after its conclusion.
177. D. Kotov, “Ukraina probuzhdaetsia,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 20–27 May 1992, 3.
178. Istoria Moldavskoi SSR, 319–23, 336, 367–9.
179. L. A. Petrov, “Osvobozhdenie Moldavii,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 15–22 April 1992, 2.
180. V. Volodin, “Rumyniia – Moldova. Iasskaia konferentsiia prizyvaet k ob'edineniiu,” Zaria Pridnestrov'ia, 16 January 1992, 3.
181. L. Dubinina et al., “Vam veshaiut lapshu na ushi, a luchshe by – na tarelki,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 4 March 1992, 2.
182. R. Movil', “Liudi ne ot mira sego,” Zaria Pridnestrov'ia, 31 March 1992, 1.
183. “Nasledniki fashizma,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 8–15 April 1992, 3; “Stroki iz obrashchenii,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 8 April 1992, 1.
184. “Stroki iz obrashchenii,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 8 April 1992, 1.
185. D. Iavorskii, “Na altar' pobedy,” Trudovoi Tiraspol', 25 March–1 April 1992, 2.
186. Ibid.
187. “Natsionalizm v Rumynii. Tam za Prutom,” Drestrovskii Meridian, 23 May 1992, 10.
188. “Polittribuna,” Dnestrovskaia Pravda, 28 March 1992, 7.
189. Louw, Media and Political Process, 49.
190. Luchinskii, Moldova i Moldavane, 336.
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Eduard Baidaus
Eduard Baidaus defended his dissertation, “Nation-Building and Separatism in Eastern Europe: The Transnistria Problem in Moldova and in the Geopolitics of Russia, Ukraine, Romania, and the European Union (1917–2014)” in the Department of History and Classics at the University of Alberta in 2017. He also holds a doctoral degree in history from the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova (1995). Baidaus is a history instructor at Lakeland College in Lloydminster and Red Deer College in Red Deer, Alberta, Canada.