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Articles

The historical narrative of the Wanli Korean campaign in the Qing Official Ming History

Pages 76-100 | Published online: 13 Jun 2019
 

Abstract

The Ming History (明史 Mingshi) by Qing official historians took more than 90 years to complete, and Wan Sitong's 萬斯同 Draft Ming History (明史稿 Mingshi gao), Wang Hongxu's 王鴻緒 Draft Ming History, and the Ming History palace edition overseen by Zhang Tingyu 張廷玉 were the most important histories of the Ming over its different stages of compilation. Wan Sitong gave much attention to the writing of history in the biographies from the Wanli Korea Campaign, Wang Hongxu did not give them much attention, and Zhang Tingyu repudiated and even negated them. In Zhang Tingyu's Ming History, the Annals of Shenzong (神宗本紀 Shenzong benji) set the tone of repudiating the Korea campaign. Due to their clan, the Bozhou Campaign (播州之役 Bozhou zhiyi), or the Liaodong Incident (遼東事變 Liaodong shibian), nearly none of the Ming generals from the eastern expedition to Korea were given biographies due to their participation in the Korean War. The History of the Choson (朝鮮傳 Chaoxian zhuan) gives a negative evaluation that denies or undervalues relevant people and battles. On the one hand, this was due to the influence of historical sources. Due to Yang Gao’s 楊鎬 responsibility for defeat in the Battle of Saerhu 薩 爾 滸 之 役, the compilers of the Veritable Records of Ming Shenzong (明神宗實錄 Ming Shenzong shilu) followed the account of Ding Yingtai 丁應泰 in their records and denied the accomplishments of Yang Gao and the Ming army in Korea. On the other hand, due to real political needs, as the commanders of the eastern expedition to Korea later became the military rival of the Later Jin in Liaodong, an attitude of denial had to be adopted against them to create legitimacy for the Qing dynasty. These were the two main factors that determined the way in which the Qing official Ming History wrote the history of the Wanli Korean War.

Notes

Notes

1 Liang Qichao wrote: “Next to the Four Histories by Sima Qian, Ban Fu, Fan Ye, and Chen Shou, nearly all scholars recognize the Ming History as the finest.” (Liang Qichao, Zhongguo jin sanbainian xueshu shi (A History of Chinese Scholarship in the Last 300 Years) (Beijing: Shangwu yinshuguan, 2001), 87.

2 Liu Chenggan edited and published Mingshi li'an (Precedents from the Ming History, 1915), which collected sources such as edicts, memorials, letters, dispatches, and guides from the Qing official Mingshi; Bao Zunpeng edited the two books “Mingshi” kaozheng juewei (Scholarship Uncovering the Secrets of the “Ming History”) (Taipei: Xuesheng shuju, 1968) and “Mingshi” bianzuan kao (Scholarship on the Composition of the “Ming History”) (Taipei: Xuesheng shuju, 1968), which gathered main articles from the early twentieth century to the 1960s; Jiang Shengli ed., 20 shiji Mingshi yanjiu (Studies in Ming History in the 20th Century) (Qu Lindong, ed.: 20 shiji ershisi shi yanjiu congshu (Collected Works From the 20th Century on the 24 Histories), Beijing: Zhongguo dabaike quanshu chubanshe, 2009) gathered representative articles from the twentieth century on the Mingshi.

3 Wang Chongwu, Du “Mingshi: Chaoxian zhuan” (Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan (Bulletin of the Institute of History, Academia Sinica) 12 (1947): 1–25.

4 Li Guangtao, “Ji Chaoxian shilu zhongzhi ‘huangming quanshi': jianlun Qianlong nian kangxing zhi 'Mingshi'” (On the “Complete Ming History” in the Veritable Records of the Choson: Also on the “Ming History” Published in the Qianlong era), Zhongyang yangjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 32 (1961): 19–45.

5 Apart from the above work, Li Guangtao's relevant articles also include: “Chaoxian renchen wohuo zhong zhi Pingrang zhanyi yu Nanhai zhanyi: jianlun ‘Zhongguo xiqu xiaoshuo zhong de Fengchen Xiuji'” (The Battles of Pyongyang and the South Sea in the Korean Renchen Japanese Invasion: Also on Toyotomi Hideyoshi in Dramas and Novels), Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 20, shang (1948): 275–98; “Chaoxian renchen wohuo yu Li Rusong zhi dongzheng” (The Korean Renchen Japanese Invasion and Li Rusong's eastern campaign), Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 22 (1950): 267–95; “Ji Chaoxian xuanmiao zhongxing zhi” (On the Korean xuanmiao zhongxing zhi), Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 22 (1950): 297–302; “Ming Ji Chaoxian ‘wohuo' yu ‘zhongyuan jianren'” (The Korean “Japanese Invasion” and the “Trickster of the Central Plains” in the late Ming), Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 26 (1955): 315–34; “Mingren yuanhan yu Yang Gao Weishan zhiyi” (The Ming Aid to Korea and Yang Gao's Battle of Ulsan), Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 41, no. 4 (1969): 545–66; “Mingren yuanhan yu Jishan dajie” (The Ming Aid to Korea and Great Victory at Jiksan), Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 43, no. 1 (1971): 1–14; “Ding Yingtai yu Yang Gao—Chaoxian renchen wohuo luncong zhiyi” (Ding Yingtai and Yang Gao—Collected Writings on the Korean Renchen Japanese Invasion 1), Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 53, no. 1 (1982): 129–66. Based on these articles, he published Wanli ershisan nian feng Riben guowang Fengchen Xiuji kao (Studies on the Investiture of Toyotomi Hideyoshi as King of Japan in the Wanli 23rd Year) (Taipei: Zhongyanyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo, 1967) and Chaoxian “renchen wohuo” yanjiu (Studies on the Korean “Renchen Japanese Invasion”) (Taipei: Zhongyanyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo zhuankan zhi liushiyi zhong, 1972). He also edited the five-volume Chaoxian “renchen wohuo” shiliao (Historical Sources on the Korean “Renchen Japanese Invasion”) (Taipei: Zhongyanyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo, 1970).

6 Xu Hong: Ershi shiji Zhongguo de mingshi yanjiu (Studies of Ming History in 20th Century China) (Taipei: Taiwan daxue chuban zhongxin, 2011), 108.

7 See Chen Shangsheng: “Wanli yuanchao zhanzheng guanjianxing renwu yu ‘mingshi' xiangguan renwu lizhuan wenti” (Issues in the critical figures in the Wanli war of assistance to Korea and biographies of relevant figures in the “Ming History”), South Korea Yonsei University Shehui kexue jiaoyu (Social Science Education) 51, no. 4 (2012): 40–8. This paper is centered on Zhang Tingyu's palace edition of the Ming History and discusses the biographies of figures such as Xu Guo, Shi Xing, Li Rusong, Shen Weijing, Gu Yangqian, Sun Kuang, Xing Jie, Yang Gao, and Ma Gui. It mainly discusses the roles of the aforementioned people in the war to resist Japan and aid Korea and does not examine the motives of the Qing Ming History and course of its compilation. He also wrote the paper “Renchen zhanzheng de lishi jiyi yu Ming Qing dingge” (Historical memory of the renchen war and the Ming-Qing transition) ("Diyi jie Zhonghan renwenxue luntan” lunwen ji [Collected papers from the “first China-South Korea humanities forum"], Seoul, South Korea, 2016, 62–7), which is a relatively simple account that goes over the basic state of Chinese writings on this war from the late Ming and early Qing and gives a basic description of this war in the late Ming and early Qing.

8 On the basis of Huang Zhangjian's Ming waishi kao (Study of Unofficial Ming Histories) Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 24 (1953): 128, Xu Hong determines that the sequence of composition of the various drafts of the Mingshi was: “(1) Wan Sitong's 313 volume Mingshi jizhuan (Ming History annals and biographies); (2) the 416 volume Mingshi; (3) Wang Hongxu's draft Mingshi liezhuan gao (Draft Ming History biographies) (i.e., the old version of Ming waishi [Unofficial Ming History]); (4) Mingshi gao cancun liezhuan (Biography fragments from the draft Ming History) (may be a revision made by Wang Hongxu after retiring in the Kangxi 48th year); (5) Wang Hongxu's Kangxi edition of Mingshi liezhuan gao (i.e., new edition of Ming waishi); (6) Wang Hongxu's Yongzheng edition of Mingshi gao; (7) Wuying Palace Mingshi; (8) Siku edition Mingshi.” (Xu Hong: Ershi shiji Zhongguo de mingshi yanjiu, 37) From this we can see that the most important editions are the 416-volume Mingshi, Wang Hongxu's Mingshi gao, and the Wuying Palace Mingshi, which happen to be the results of three important stages in the composition of the Mingshi. Therefore, this paper mainly discusses Zhang Tingyu's palace edition Mingshi (hereinafter “palace edition Mingshi"), and references Wan Sitong's Mingshi gao (hereinafter “Wan draft") and Wang Hongxu's Mingshi gao (hereinafter “Wang draft") for comparative discussion. The palace edition Mingshi is based on the 1974 Zhonghua shuju annotated edition. The Wan draft includes the Xuxiu siku quanshu (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1995) facsimile edition; the Tianyi Ge collection Mingshi gao that was published in 2008 by Ningbo chubanshe in the Tianyi ge zhenben congkan (Collected precious editions from Tianyi ge) facsimile edition in 22 volumes and 12 books; later its name changed to Mingshi liezhuan gao and included in Wan Sitong quanji (Complete works of Wan Sitong) (Ningbo: Ningbo chubanshe, 2013) which is also a facsimile edition; and this paper uses the Xuxiu siku quanshu edition. The Wang draft is based on the 1962 Taiwan wenhai chubanshe facsimile edition.

9 Li Jinhua, "Mingshi” zuanxiu kao (A Study on the Composition of the “Ming History”), Yenching Journal of Chinese Studies monograph series no. 3, Harvard-Yenching Institute (December 1933), see Jiang Shengli ed., Mingshi yanjiu, Qu Lindong, ed., 20 shiji ershisi shi yanjiu congshu, 110.

10 Huang Zongxi, Quan Zuwang ed. Nanlei shili (Poems of Nanlei listed chronologically) vol. 3, “Song Wan Jiye zhenyi beishang, jiwei” (To Wan Jiye as he loyally travels north, jiwei), Xuxiu siku quanshu “Ji” section vol. 1397, 650.

11 On Wan Sitong's contribution to the composition of Mingshi, see Zhu Duanqiang, Wan Siting yu mingshi xiuzuan jinian (Wan Sitong and a Chronology of Composition of the Ming History) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2004).

12 Liu Chenggan, Mingshi li'an vol. 2 Wang Hengyun shi liyi (On Wang Hengyun's rules of history) (shang), Xu Shu ed., “Mingshi” dingbu wenxian huibian (Collected Texts to Correct the “Ming History”) (Beijing: Beijing tushuguan chubanshe, 2004), 29.

13 See Yi Ruolan, Shixue yu xingbie: “Mingshi: lienü zhuan” yu mingdai nüxingshi zhi jiangou (History and Gender: “Ming History: Biographies of Virtuous Women” and the Construction of Women's History in the Ming) (Taiyuan: Shanxi jiaoyu chubanshe, 2011), 34–5.

14 Wang Youdun, Songquan ji, vol. 7 “Da mingshi guan mou lun shishi shu” (Letter in reply to the Ming history bureau regarding certain historical facts), Wenyuan Ge Siku quanshu (Taipei: Taiwan shangwu yinshuguan, 1986), vol. 1328, 762.

15 Chen Yongming: “Mingren yu qingren: mingqing yidai xiazhi shenfen rentong” (People of the Ming and Qing: Status Identification in the Ming–Qing Transition), Qingdai qianqi de zhengzhi rentong yu lishi shuxie (Political Identification and the Writing of History in the Early Qing) (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 2011), 95–6.

16 There are in-depth discussions of the state and background of official and private changes in the composition of the Mingshi during the Qing in Qiao Zhizhong's Qingchao guanfang shixue yanjiu (A Study of Qing Official Histories) (Taipei: Wenjin chubanshe, 1994), Jiang Shengli's Qingren mingshixue tanyan (A Study of Qing Scholarship on Ming History) (Tianjin: Nankai daxue chubanshe, 1997), and Chen Yongming's Qingdai qianqi de zhengzhi rentong yu lishi shuxie.

17 "Zhang Tingyu shang mingshi biao” (Zhang Tingyu Presents the Ming History Tables", Zhang Tingyu, et al., Mingshi, 8630.

18 Liu Zhiji, Pu Qilong annotated, Shitong tongshi (Complete Commentary on the Shitong) vol. 2 Neipian: benji disi (Inner chapters: annals 4), Wang Xuhua ed. (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 2009), 34.

19 Zhang Tingyu, et al., Mingshi vol. 20 Shenzong benji yi, 275–8. The content in the Wan draft is basically the same (vol. 19, 226).

20 Zhang Tingyu et al., Mingshi vol. 21 Shenzong benji er, 279–81.

21 Liu Zhiji, Pu Qilong annotated: Shitong tongshi vol. 2 Neipian: benji disi, 35.

22 Ibid., Neipian: liezhuan diliu (Biographies 6), 41.

23 Huang Yunmei: Mingshi kaozheng (Evidential Scholarship on the Ming History) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1979), “Benshu neirong qieyao” (Essential content of this book), 5.

24 See Yi Jolan, Shixue yu xingbie: “Mingshi: lienü zhuan” yu mingdai nüxingshi zhi jiangou, 46–47.

25 Wan Sitong, Mingshi gao vol. 332 “Shi Xing zhuanzan” (Postscript to Shi Xing), 25.

26 Wang Hongxu, Mingshi gao “Shili yi shang” (Discussion of the rules of history), 22a.

27 Zhang Tingyu et al., Mingshi vol. 228 “Li Hualong zhuan” (Biography of Li Hualong), 5987.

28 Wan Sitong, Mingshi gao vol. 322 “Li Chengliang zhuan” (Biography of Li Chengliang), 559.

29 Ibid., vol. 323 “Ma Gui zhuan” (Biography of Ma Gui), 576.

30 Zhang Tingyu, et al., Mingshi vol. 238, “Li Chengliang Ma Gui zhuan” (Biographies of Li Chengliang and Ma Gui), 6203.

31 Wan Sitong, Mingshi gao vol. 321, “Liu Ting Deng Zilong Li Yingxiang Ma Kongying Wu Guang Tong Yuanzhen zhuan” (Biographices of Liu Ting, Deng Zilong, Li Yingxiang, Ma Kongying, Wu Guang, and Tong Yuanzhen) “Lun,” 548.

32 Zhang Tingyu et al., Mingshi vol. 247 “Liu Ting, Li Yingxiang, Chen Lin, Deng Zilong, Ma Kongying zhuan” (Biographics of Liu Ting, Li Yingxiang, Chen Lin, Deng Zilong, and Ma Kongying) “zan,” 6414.

33 Wan Sitong's Mingshi gao: Chaoxian zhuan has a brief account that differs greatly from Zhang Tingyu's Mingshi: Chaoxian zhuan and is basically the same as the Wang draft.

34 Li Guangtao, “Chaoxian ‘renchen wohuo' yu Li Rusong zhi dongzheng,” Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 22 (1950): 282.

35 Chaoxian xuanzu shilu vol. 33, Seonjo 25th year (1592) 12th month 23rd day jiyou, Chaoxian wangchao shilu (Veritable record of the Choson kingdom) (Seoul: Hanguo guoshi bianzuan weiyuanhui biankan, 1960–1965 facsimile edition, vol. 21), 592.

36 Zhang Tingyu, et al., Mingshi vol. 320 Chaoxian zhuan, 8292.

37 Li Guangtao, “Chaoxian renchen wohuo zhong zhi Pingrang zhanyi yu Nanhai zhanyi: jianlun ‘Zhongguo xiqu xiaoshuo zhong de Fencheng Xiuji,'” Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 20, shang (1948): 275.

38 Zhang Tingyu et al., Mingshi vol. 238 Li Rusong zhuan (Biography of Li Rusong), 6194.

39 Ibid., 6195.

40 Ibid., vol. 320 Chaoxian zhuan, 8292.

41 Ibid., vol. 322 Riben zhuan, 8358.

42 Chaoxian xuanzu shilu vol. 35, Seonjo 26th year second month gengyin, jiachen, Chaoxian wangchao shilu, vol. 21, 624, 638.

43 Qian Shizhen, Zhengdong shiji (True Annals of the Eastern Campaign), Qing copy, year unknown, original work does not have page numbers.

44 Wang Chongwu, “Li Rusong zhengdong kao” (A Study of Li Rusong's Eastern Campaign), Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 16 (1947): 348.

45 Zhang Tingyu et al., Mingshi vol. 320 Chaoxian zhuan, 8296–7.

46 Li Guangtao, “Ding Yingtai yu Yang Gao—Chaoxian renchen wohuo luncong zhiyi,” Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 53, no. 1 (1982): 163.

47 Chaoxian xuanzu gaixiu shilu (Revised veritable records of Seonjo of Choson) vol. 31, Seonjo 30th year ninth month jichou, Chaoxian wangchao shilu vol. 25, 663.

48 Chaoxian xuanzu shilu vol. 93, Seonjo 30th year 10th month dingchou, Chaoxian wangchao shilu vol. 23, 319.

49 Zhang Tingyu et al., Mingshi vol. 320 Chaoxian zhuan, 8297.

50 Chaoxian xuanzu gaixiu shilu vol. 31, Seonjo 30th year 12th month dingsi, Chaoxian wangchao shilu vol. 25, 663.

51 On the impeachment of Ding Yingtai, see Li Guangtao, “Ding Yingtai yu Yang Gao—Chaoxian renchen wohuo luncong zhiyi,” Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 53, no. 1 (1982): 129–66; Sun Weiguo: “Ding Yingtai tanhe shijian yu Mingqing shiji zhi jiangou” (The Ding Yingtai impeachment incident and construction of Ming and Qing histories), Nankai xuebao (Nankai Journal) 2012, no. 3.

52 Zhang Tingyu et al., Mingshi vol. 322 Chaoxian zhuan, 8299.

53 Li Guangtao, “Chaoxian renchen wohuo zhong zhi Pingrang zhanyi yu Nanhai zhanyi: jianlun ‘Zhongguo xiqu xiaoshuo zhong de Fencheng Xiuji,'” Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 20, shang (1948): 287.

54 Chen Yongming, Qingdai qianqi de zhengzhi rentong yu lishi shuxie “Xulun,” 2.

55 Huang Yunmei, “‘Mingshi' bianzuan kaolüe” (A Study of the Composition of the “Ming History”), originally published in Jinling xuebao (Jinling Journal) 1, no. 2 (1931), see Jiang Shengli ed., Mingshi yanjiu, Qu Lindong ed.: 20 shiji ershisishi yanjiu congshu, 71.

56 Chen Shoushi, “‘Mingshi' juewei” (Uncovering the Secrets of the “Ming History"), originally published in Guoxue luncong (Compendium of National Learning) 1, no. 4 (1928), in Jiang Shengli ed., Mingshi yanjiu, Qu Lindong ed.: 20 shiji ershisishi yanjiu congshu, 10.

57 Ming shenzong shilu vol. 317, Wanli twenty-fifth year twelfth month dinghai (Taipei: Zhongyanyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo, 1966 emended edition), 5911–2.

58 Ming shenzong shilu vol. 339, Wanli twenty-seventh year ninth month yichou, 6299.

59 Sim Hun, Xiangcun gao (Elephant village manuscript) vol. 39 “Tianchao zhaoshi jiangchen xianhou qulai xingming, jizi renchen zhi gengzi” (Names of military servants dispatched by the heavenly kingdom, from renchen to gengzi), South Korea National Culture Promotion Committee ed., Yingyin biaodian Hanguo wenji congkan (Reprints of Collected Writings From South Korea With Punctuation) (Seoul: Jingren wenhuashe, 1991) vol. 71, 270.

60 Ming shenzong shilu vol. 323, Wanli twenty-sixth year sixth month dingsi, 5995–7.

61 Qing gaozong shilu (Veritable records of Qing Gaozong) vol. 996, Qianlong fortieth year eleventh month guiwei (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1985), 324.

62 See Sun Weiguo, Daming qihao yu xiaozhonghua yishi—Chaoxian wangchao zunzhou siming wenti yanjiu, 1637–1800 (The Banner of the Great Ming and Awareness of Lesser Zhonghua—Studies on the Issue of the Choson Kingdom Respecting the Zhou and Longing for the Ming, 1637–1800) chapter 2 (Beijing: Shangwu yinshuguan, 2007), 97–146.

63 See Sun Weiguo, “Qingxiu ‘Mingshi' yu Chaoxian zhi fanying” (The Qing official “Ming History” and Reaction of the Choson), Xueshu yuekan (Academic Monthly) no. 4 (2008).

64 Chaoxian xuanzu shilu vol. 30, Seonjo twenty-fifth year ninth month jiaxu, Chaoxian wangchao shilu vol. 21, 544. On the matter of the Jianzhou Jurchen willingly helping the Choson resist the Japanese, see Wei Zhijiang, “Lun houjin nuerhachi zhengquan yu Chaoxian wangchao de jiaoshe jiqi yingxiang” (On the later Jin Nurhaci regime's interactions with the Choson kingdom and its impact), Minzu yanjiu (Ethno-National Studies) no. 2 (2008).

65 See Huang Yuanjiu, “Mingshi jishi benmo ‘yuan Chaoxian' bianzheng: mingshigao mingshi guanxi jishi de diben wenti” (Verifying all Historical Events of the Ming Records of “Assisting the Choson": Issues in Sources for Records in the Draft Ming History and Ming History), Hanguo xuebao (South Korea Journal) (Taipei) no. 5 (1985): 449–60.

66 Liu Chenggan, Mingshi li'an vol. 1 “Sheng zuren huangdi yu” (Edicts of emperor shengzu ren), Xu Shu ed., "Mingshi” dingbu wenxian huibian, 5.

67 Liu Chenggan, Mingshi li'an vol. 2, “Xu Jian'an xiushi tiaoyi” (On Xu Jian'an's rules of writing history), Xu Shu ed., “Mingshi” dingbu wenxian huibian, 13.

68 Ibid., 13–5.

69 Liu Chenggan, Mingshi li'an vol. 9, “Wan Jiye shilüe” (Biography of Wan Jiye), Xu Shu ed., “Mingshi” dingbu wenxian huibian, 108.

70 Wang Chongwu, Du “mingshi: Chaoxian zhuan,” Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan vol. 12 section 11, 1947, 1.

71 Huang Yunmei, Mingshi kaozheng, “Benshu neirong qieyao,” 1.

72 Chen Shoushi, “Mingshi” juewei, Jiang Shengli ed., Mingshi yanjiu, Qu Lindong ed., 20 shiji ershisishi yanjiu congshu, 34.

73 Wang Mingke: Fansi shixue yu shixue fansi: wenben yu biaozheng fenxi (Reflections on History and Historical Reflections: Text and Representation Analysis) (Taipei: Yunchen wenhua shiye youxian gongsi, 2015, 160).

74 Chen Yongming: “Cong ‘wei guguo cunxin shi' dao ‘wei wanshi zhigang chang': qingchu de nanmingshi shuxie” (From “preserving the history of the former country” to “establishing the constant virtues for the ages”: early Qing writing of the history of the Southern Ming), Qingdai qianqi de zhengzhi rentong yu lishi shuxie, 146.

75 Wang Mingke: Fansi shixue yu shixue fansi: wenben yu biaozheng fenxi, 51.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Sun Weiguo

Sun Weiguo is professor of history at the College of History, Nankai University.

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