An analysis of Sudan’s energy sector and its renewable energy potential in a comparative African perspective

ABSTRACT

The UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) emphasize the importance of using reliable and clean energy at a reasonable cost (SDG 7). This article investigates Sudan’s renewable energy policies and the country’s potential to maximize renewable energy production. It argues that Sudan has great potential to secure a sustainable energy supply by switching to solar, wind, and geothermal resources. The central assumption is that Sudan’s diverse sources of renewable energy (RE) are not being exploited to their full capacity. The article highlights energy policies in other African countries that Sudan could adopt to expand RE generation. The analysis reveals promising indicators of Sudan’s ability to maximize its solar, wind, and geothermal energy resources. It also presents conclusions and recommendations concerning the future of RE policies and production in Sudan.

KEYWORDS:

• Solar
• geothermal
• wind
• renewable energy
• Sudan

Introduction

Energy is nowadays considered to be the main driving force behind the development of key economic sectors; especially energy-intensive industrial sectors. This must take into account environmental resources and the impact of policy on those resources. The seventh of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) highlights the need to guarantee access to ‘affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern’ energy resources for all people and economic sectors [1]. Growing concerns about environmental issues and climate change, continuous fluctuations in fossil fuel prices, as well as rapid advances in RE technologies, have also accelerated RE exploitation around the globe [2,3]. Renewable energy is a form of sustainable energy that is produced without fear of resource depletion. Hydropower, wind, solar, geothermal, tidal, and biomass energy are widespread forms of renewable energy [4]. Sustainable energy guarantees a sufficient amount of energy for future generations [2].

Sudan is rich in natural resources; both non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels and minerals, and also its vast potential for harnessing a variety of RE resources [5]. Yet, with the exception of hydropower, RE resources are not being fully exploited, leaving Sudan currently reliant on fossil fuels. Following the separation of oil-rich South Sudan from Sudan in 2011, Sudan has struggled to provide enough energy from sustainable sources to satisfy the growing needs of domestic household, industrial, and agricultural consumption [6]. Sudan’s energy sector is facing numerous challenges: persistent blackouts, an inadequate energy infrastructure, and a poor and scattered government response [7]. Since the Separation of South Sudan in 2011, the issue of inadequate energy supplies has gained not only the attention of the Sudanese government, but also of the industrial and private sectors. The link between higher electricity consumption and increasing investment and noticeable economic growth in Sudan has been demonstrated [8]. Thus, developing a sustainable energy policy will be an essential element of economic growth and development.

This article examines the reality of the RE sector in Sudan and argues that diversifying the range of energy resources exploited will solve Sudan’s current energy sector problems. The article thoroughly examines and discusses Sudan’s current energy policies with a focus on the challenges and opportunities facing the energy sector. The article starts with a brief discussion of the importance of RE in general and in Sudan in particular, followed by an analysis of Sudan’s energy sector. This section includes a discussion of the potential to exploit RE in Sudan. The next section discusses current governmental energy policies, national projects, and incentives that have underscored the need for Sudan to maximise RE production. The section is followed by a discussion of promising country experiences on the African continent that Sudan can turn to and a detailed discussion of Sudan’s energy policy options in light of these experiences. The article ends with a conclusion.

Renewable energy trends

Since the industrial revolution, humanity has relied heavily on fossil fuels as a source of energy. In recent decades, there has been global concern about the impact of climate change, and energy exploration based on fossil fuels is expected to decline in the next few decades, leading to a shortage of energy, thus expediting the transition to RE sources and consumption [9,10].

The goal of expanding renewables is attainable, as they have the potential to provide more than enough energy to meet the world’s demands [11]. Many countries have started to incorporate plans to harness RE into their strategic plans. Establishing strong regulatory and policy frameworks is an essential catalyst for accelerating the proliferation of renewable energies, maximising RE production alongside investing in major advances in energy efficiency and consumption, and reducing carbon dioxide emissions. This requires robust governmental support for nurturing the implementation of new technologies and equipping the market with skilled workers [12].

At the global level, many countries have embarked on ambitious plans to transition to RE. Germany, for example, aims to increase its share of renewables to 80% and phase out nuclear energy production by 2050. Germany has increased its photovoltaic and wind production. Recently implemented energy policies have helped to achieve a rapid rise in RE generation. By the end of 2021, 19.7% of gross energy consumption came from RE sources. The main driver behind this growth was the electricity sector, as RE sources provided 41.1% of electricity consumption [13]. Figure 1, below, illustrates how the German electrical sector is becoming more dependent on renewable energy sources for transportation and heating/cooling [13].

Figure 1. Share of RE in Germany’s electrical sector, 1990–2020 [14].

In 2014, the Chinese National Development and Reform Commission released a new Energy Consumption and Production Strategy that reversed the seemingly continuous reduction in RE and prioritised the generation of clean, low-carbon energy [15]. Through this strategy, RE is expected to account for 50% of China’s energy production by 2050, with a reduction of 60 to 65% in carbon emissions compared to 2005 levels [16,17]. As a result, REs reached 28% of China’s electricity generation in 2021, as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Breakdown by main energy resource in China [18].

As many countries began to make significant investments in RE, its use has gained momentum on a global scale [19]. Figure 3, below, shows that China, the US, and EU lead the world in terms of power capacity derived from renewables and how wind, bioenergy, and hydro exploitation have increased for 2020/2021.

Figure 3. International use of renewable energy based on region [or country] and source [19].

On the African continent, South Africa, Kenya, Morocco, Egypt, Senegal, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Djibouti, and Eritrea have started harnessing renewable energies. Since the 1990s, Kenya has demonstrated a strong political commitment towards shifting to RE and has introduced significant reforms, including a wholesale market structure and feed-in tariffs. These strategic energy plans were created to diversify the country’s energy portfolio to satisfy energy demand. As a result, the private sector has become more concerned with investment and operations, especially regarding wind and solar energy projects. This has led to a considerable increase in access to RE-generated energy. Firstly, the electrification rate increased to 65%, up from to 43% in 2000. Secondly, Kenya’s unprecedented reforms have helped to boost the RE share to about 77% of total energy capacity [20].

Egypt has also created an integrated sustainable energy strategy and aims to increase its RE share by 20% in 2022 and 40% by the end of 2035. This strategy is meant to allow Egypt to secure a continuous energy supply and bring stability to its energy sector. In 2020, the country succeeded in generating a power capacity of 3.51 GW from renewable resources. The completion of the RE strategy is expected to add 10.19 GW to existing capacity, with an average annual growth rate of 14.6%. This strategy increases the use of PV solar technology (forecasted to generate 7.71 GW by the end of 2030) and wind power (forecasted to generate 5.64 GW in 2030) [21].

Africa’s total wind energy capacity grew by 41% from 2000 to 2010. This exceeds the international growth rate of 27% [22]. According to a 2018 estimate, South Africa is the pioneering country on the continent with a total production capacity of 2,094 MW, followed by Morocco and Egypt with capacities of 1,220 MW and 1,125 MW, respectively [23]. With the establishment of the African Renewable Initiative in 2015, South Africa aims to increase its wind capacity to 6,360 MW by the end of 2030 [24]. Morocco aims to achieve 2,000 MW of wind generation by 2020, and managed to produce 1,435 MW by the end of 2021 [25,26].

Sudan’s energy sector in a nutshell

Early in the 1980s, Sudan made considerable strides in the use of solar and wind energy technology to increase electrification in rural areas [27]. The discovery of oil, mainly in South Sudan in 1998, hindered the further exploitation of solar energy as a means of producing energy on a wider scale as Sudan became heavily reliant on its oil resources in the South. In 2011, a referendum paved the way for South Sudan to declare its independence as a separate state. The independence of South Sudan resulted in the loss of 75% of the Sudan’s oil reserves and 25% of its hydropower capacity [28]. The decrease in energy supplies, combined with increased demand bolstered by a growing population, threatened Sudan’s energy security and contributed to its current energy crisis [28]. Although hydroelectricity generates approximately half of Sudan’s electricity, there are numerous obstacles to its full use. These include questions about international boundaries, environmental degradation, and limited financial capabilities for investment [29]. According to a World Bank estimate for 2019, 47% of the Sudanese population did not have access to electricity. The demand for electricity has grown persistently since 2013, with an average of 11% annually. Approximately 47% of Sudan’s rural households do not have access to electricity [30]. Although the availability of extracting RE resources other than hydro resources is feasible, fossil fuels remain one of the most used sources of energy. According to a US government report, the total capacity generated in Sudan in 2020 was about 4,400 MW. More than 96% of this capacity was derived from fossil fuels and hydropower; the rest was dependent on RE, viz., solar and biomass [31]. The country started to increase its production from solar resources, leading to an increase in capacity from 14 MW in 2019 to 18 MW in 2020. Figure 4 shows the breakdown of energy production resources in Sudan.

Figure 4. Breakdown of energy resources in Sudan generated based on world data [32].

The political and socio-economic upheavals of the Arab Spring have taken a toll on Sudan’s energy sector. The accusation that Sudan sponsors terrorism and the resulting international isolation and blockade have made it hard for the transitional government to attract foreign investors and to strengthen an economy that was poorly managed by previous governments [33,34]. Currently, Sudden suffers from frequent and increasing power cuts that disrupt businesses and prevent households from enjoying a stable energy supply. Power cuts, which can last as long as six hours, are exacerbated by hyperinflation, fuel shortages, and the inability of the government to maintain and import the required spare parts to run existing power stations [35,36]. In addition, the high electrical tariffs imposed on the industrial sector might deter many potential investors and have a negative effect on economic growth [37].

Further, Sudan’s energy sector is currently subsidised by the government. Government subsidies to the sector totalled $667 million in 2019. This represents 13.5% of total government expenditures [22]. Financial sustainability could be achieved by introducing gradual tariff adjustments. It will be necessary to address external factors affecting domestic electricity prices, mainly in relation to fluctuating exchange rates and inflation [22]. The depreciating Sudanese pound and continued inflation limits Sudan’s ability to recover operational costs for electricity production since the energy sector depends on imported fossil fuels for thermal generation. The World Bank has recommended an incremental annual increase in the electrical tariff of 2.6 cents per Kwh for five years to recover about 50% of operational expenditures [22].

In 2019, the new transitional government announced a gradual increase in all types of fuel prices as a way to eliminate government subsidies. In 2020, the country began implementing a gradual three-year reform program for electricity prices. The program was met by public protests [38]. Rate changes implemented in the first year of the program allowed the government to save 69% of actual generation costs. By the end of this program in 2023, the subsidy decrease may reach 95% [38,39]. In January 2022, as part of the reform program, the authorities increased electricity prices by 500% for household consumption, leading to public protests [34]. This price reform also applied to the industrial sector. The cost of electricity for the agricultural sector increased from 1.6 to 9 pounds per KW [39]. Numerous local businesses shut down in response to this abrupt increase, and some economists cautioned that creating a tax-dependent economy by instituting sharp tax increases would exacerbate inflation and lead the nation into recession [34].

Despite these urgent efforts, the Sudanese government is currently still unable to finance any immediate solutions that would guarantee a constant and continuous electricity supply. Sudan requires 3,020 MW of electricity production to meet its domestic market needs; nevertheless, its current production capacity is 2,220 MW. Therefore, Sudan imports electricity from neighbouring countries, such as Ethiopia (200 MW) and Egypt (78 MW), to make up for the shortfall [40]. The agreement with Egypt stipulates that Egypt will export electricity to Sudan in exchange for goods such as food crops and animal protein [41]. As for Ethiopia, Sudan imports electricity at a price of 4.5 cents/kilowatt [27]. In August 2021, the Minister of Energy and Petroleum declared that the Sudanese energy sector needed urgent maintenance and restructuring at a cost of $3 billion, another indicator of the dire financial needs of the sector [42].

As a result of this situation, Sudan currently only scores 30 in the Regulatory Indicators for Sustainable Energy (RISE). The global average score is 48. RISE represents a snapshot of a country’s regulations and policies in the energy sector. It is organised around the three pillars of sustainable energy: energy efficiency, energy access, and renewable energy. RISE assesses the performance of energy development in 138 countries. Sudan is only ranked 120^th [43]. Sudan’s low score reflects the deficiency of policies and regulations in the energy sector. It should push the government to create new policies and approaches to address these structural issues, including but not limited to looking into ways to rely more on RE sources. Figure 5 shows a comparison between Sudan’s scores and those of other countries in Africa.

Figure 5. RISE scores for select African countries, generated from the RISE database [41].

Sudan’s renewable energy potential

Sudan’s vast geographical area, its abundant sunshine, and the high wind speed in some regions mean that the country could create sustainable geothermal, solar, and wind RE production [44]. The Ministry of Energy and Petroleum stated the government’s interest in exploiting additional RE resources to increase production capacity to complement available hydropower resources. The Ministry created new plans to address the issue of expanding RE projects and to overcome past challenges [45]. For example, plans were made to increase hydroelectric production capacity, viz., improvements to the Kajbar and Roseires Dams and the construction of the Setit Dam. Financial difficulties and environmental concerns have prevented these projects from progressing [8].

Solar energy currently makes up less than 0.1% of Sudan’s energy supply; but there is immense potential because there is an average of 8.5 to 11 hours of sunshine per day [46]. Figure 6 compares solar energy generation in Sudan and other African countries from 2015 to 2019, and shows that Sudan is not capitalising on its potential.

Figure 6. Solar energy production in Sudan and select African countries, 2015 to 2019 [45].

As for wind, in the 1980s and early 1990s there was a significant interest in using wind energy in Sudan to meet growing demand in rural areas. The discovery of oil halted this process [47]. Locations such as the Red Sea State, where the north trade winds blow at speeds of up to 6 m/s, have great potential for wind energy production. And indeed, in 2010, an initial agreement was signed with Dubai-based Omene Company to construct a wind power facility to generate about 500 MW of electricity capacity along the Red Sea coast. This initial agreement remains unfulfilled [48]. Hence, the use of wind power is mostly limited to irrigation and water pumps.

Sudan also has great potential to produce geothermal energy, i.e. using the heat emanating from underground to raise steam to move turbines to generate electricity [49]. Sudan has shown promising indications of geothermal heat in many regions, namely the Tagbo and Beidob hills and Jebel Marra volcano in the Darfur region, and Bayud volcano in the Red Sea State. These geothermal resources are estimated to have the potential to produce 400 MW of electricity [50].

Solar energy requires huge capital costs, but it has low operating expenditures because of low maintenance costs and does not require fuel to operate. The initial cost of wind energy depends on the elevation at which the wind plant is installed [47], as well as the turbine and its blades. Without detailed plans and information, investing in geothermal energy is risky [49]. The Sudanese government needs more national and local studies comparing the cost-effectiveness of these types of RE.

In the context of the current energy crisis, the government has emphasised the role of RE in mitigating long-term suffering. The new energy strategy aims to generate 4,500 MW of solar and 3,000 MW of wind energy by the end of 2035 [51]. The Sudanese government is currently increasing its efforts to expand its solar energy share. The government has signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the UAE to build a solar power plant. This agreement will allow one of the UAE’s private companies to instal a power plant with a 500 MW capacity, and operate it for 20 years. The MoU does not specify many of the technical and financial details, including how many plants [52]. The Sudanese government and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), received the first wind turbine in June 2021. Through the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the UNDP brings needed expertise and skills to the Sudanese government to strengthen use of wind energy. The turbine also offers training opportunities for Sudanese engineers and contributes to building their skills for future wind projects. The turbine was installed in the Northern state, and is expected to provide electricity to 14,000 people. The project was built to demonstrate the country’s potential to generate wind energy and attract more investment in the field of RE [53].

African success stories

Sudan can learn important lessons from other African countries and their experiences with solar, wind, and geothermal energy production. Renewable capacity has reached 7% of the total continent’s capacity in the last few decades, with solar and wind energy growing above all. In 2019 and 2020, a total of 2.6 GW of RE capacity was added to the existing capacity. Solar energy accounted for 48% of this additional capacity, wind energy for 28%, and hydropower for 24% [54]. Figure 7, below, shows Africa’s growing use on solar and wind energy.

Figure 7. Renewable energy generation in Africa (2011–2020) and additional capacity (2019–2020) [52].

In the next sections, we discuss Egypt, Morocco, South Africa, and select countries from the East Africa Rift because we believe they are relevant to the Sudanese context. Figure 8 shows the generated electricity produced from solar and wind in Egypt, Morocco, and South Africa from 2015 to 2019.

Figure 8. Electricity generation from solar and wind resources in Egypt, South Africa, and Morocco [45].

Egypt

With a growing capacity to generate energy from renewable sources, Egypt is considered one of the leading countries in RE capacity [55]. Egypt created a governmental regulatory body for RE in 1986. The main goal of this entity was to encourage and promote scientific research on RE technologies. Egyptian authorities aim to increase the RE share to 42% by the end of 2035, with at target of a 20% share to be achieved by 2022 [55]. In 2021, Egypt’s production capacity of renewable energy has reached nearly 24,000 GW/h [56]. This included 14,000 GW of hydropower, 5,400 GW of wind energy, 4,500 of solar energy, and 12 GW of biofuels [56]. The Egyptian government has encouraged solar and wind energy production by applying a feed-in tariff for electricity generated from these sources [55,56]. In the case of solar energy, Egyptian authorities have also initiated the Benban Solar Project in the Aswan Governorate [57]. The project is funded with $4 billion from the government and is projected to generate a total capacity of 1.8 GW, which would make it the world’s largest solar photovoltaic area. In 2018, the first phase was completed and 50 MW was generated [58,59].

Sudan could exploit its renewable resources by adopting a strategy similar to Egypt. Encouraging solar and wind power in the country’s energy portfolio could help Sudan achieve its goal of energy self-sufficiency. Egyptian policies such as nurturing and promoting renewable technologies and scientific research, feed-in tariffs, and tax exemptions could help Sudan achieve its objectives.

Morocco

Morocco has plentiful of wind and sunshine, with an average wind speed of 12 m/s and 2,500 to 3,000 hours of solar radiation per year [60]. During COP21,¹ Morocco set a goal of producing 52% of its electricity from renewable resources by the end of 2030 [61]. To achieve this goal, the country has undertaken a formidable restructuring of its energy sector by introducing new legislation and increasing the number of implementing institutions to scale up the share of renewables in energy generation. RE now accounts for about 40% of Morocco’s electricity generation capacity. This high percentage has allowed the country to phase out some of its energy subsidies and promote the country’s reputation in the field of clean energy generation [62].

One of the most useful strategies Sudan can adopt from Morocco is the use of new legislation and new policies to restructure the energy sector. This recommended adjustment could encourage future investments targeting renewable production and attract more foreign and local investors to participate in renewable production projects.

South Africa

South Africa’s reliance on coal for electricity generation has resulted in significant environmental degradation [63]. The country’s annual CO2 emission of 4,1818 g co2/MJ accounts for 34% of all emissions from Africa and it ranks 14th in greenhouse emissions worldwide [64]. Yet, with its potential for wind and solar energy, South Africa has a great opportunity to become one of the world’s leaders in RE. The average solar radiation is about 2,500 hours per year, with a total estimated wind power capacity of about 6,700 GW.

In 2011, in order to combat environmental degradation, improve energy efficiency, and reduce the country’s reliance on fossil fuels, the South African government launched the RE Independent Power Producers Procurement Program (REIPPPP). South Africa intends to produce 18.2 GW of renewable capacity by 2030, with 16.8 GW coming from wind and solar resources [65]. Much of this will be accomplished via encouraging the private sector to invest heavily in RE production [66]. By 2015, the REIPPPP had worked to diversify power generation and accelerated renewable production; at that time, over 60 power entities produced 6,422 MW of RE [67,68]. Further successful implementation of the REIPPP program could allow the country to reduce CO2 emissions substantially, increase total energy production, and promote economic development [69]. Introducing a program similar to South Africa’s REIPPP in Sudan could help motivate more independent producers to invest in RE and allow Sudan to achieve energy diversification.

The East African Rift

The East African Rift is considered to have the most potential in Africa for geothermal energy extraction based on a study by the African Development Bank with an estimated capacity of 15 GW [70]. Countries such as Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Djibouti, Rwanda, and Eritrea in the East African Rift have already adopted geothermal energy. These nations have succeeded in exploiting their geothermal resource with nearly 630 MW of electricity generated from these resources. In Kenya, for example, geothermal energy contributes to more than 40% of its electricity production [70]. Furthermore, the Kenya Electricity Generating Company has won a bid to construct 11 geothermal wells in the Aluto Langano area in the Ethiopian rift valley. The bid was owned by the state-owned Ethiopian Electric Power (EEP). The project was funded by the International Development Association (IDA) and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Recently, the same state-owned Kenyan company has tested a new geothermal well at this site [71].

Since Sudan’s geothermal potential has not been fully studied or exploited, Sudan should focus on gathering geothermal information and using other geological data to identify prospective areas of geothermal activity. In addition, learning from Kenya’s experience and inviting Kenyan energy companies to Sudan can advance geothermal energy exploitation in Sudan.

Sudan’s solar, wind, and geothermal potential in the transition to renewable energy

Many countries face the challenge of combining fossil fuels with other RE resources to help achieve energy security, mitigate the effects of climate change, and reduce the dependence on oil. Using clean energy technologies has many other advantages, including reducing unemployment, boosting economic growth, and reducing the country’s vulnerability to fluctuating oil prices [72,73]. In order to achieve these goals, the Sudanese government should adopt more environment-friendly regulations so as to push local business leaders and foreign investors to adapt to these policies. Newly introduced policies and legislation should focus on creating a conducive and attractive environment to expedite the transition to RE adoption.

New technologies make solar and wind energy feasible and affordable. They represent vast opportunities for RE resource-rich Sudan. Although capital expenditures for solar are higher than those for wind, the gap between the two is narrowing as new crystalline silicon fixed-tilt panels have rapidly reduced the cost of solar [74]. Indeed, photovoltaic technologies, especially the parabolic trough and solar power tower, have already yielded significant success in electricity generation in many countries [75]. Figure 9 shows the sharp decline in the costs of solar and wind energy technologies compared to other renewable sources [76].

Figure 9. Installed cost by technology (2010–2020) [73].

Solar energy has the greatest potential for use in Sudan compared to other forms of RE. Sudan possesses an average annual radiation range of 436 to 639 W/m2 per year, which exceeds the annual global average. The period of solar radiation in the country is between 8.5 and 11 hours per day [77]. There is, furthermore, much unused land available for RE development [78].

Since the country already has experience with solar energy, the government should focus its efforts on using this resource, as well as strengthening the National Electricity Corporation (NEC) capacity to attract the private sector to participate in this great national enterprise. Moreover, the Sudanese government should make it easier for national companies to secure financial resources and facilitate transforming solar energy infrastructure. Immediate governmental policies have to encourage the application of cutting-edge technology that aims to meet energy needs. Sudan must use policy strategies to initiate a market-based renewable portfolio and connect solar generation with the electricity grid. These market incentives can include making it easier to build renewable projects, reducing regulatory and financial constraints, and providing the necessary information for investors and local manufacturers to analyse market potential and opportunities.

As for wind energy, Sudan is one of eight African countries with significant onshore wind capacity. Wind energy has the potential to meet an estimated 90% of the country’s annual energy demands [79]. Figure 10 compares the country’s estimated onshore wind capacity with that of other African countries [80].

Figure 10. Estimated onshore wind capacity in select African countries [76].

Sudanese authorities recognise this potential and, in partnership with Lahmayer International GmbH (LI), published the first wind atlas for Sudan in 2012. Three areas were identified as having great promise: the Red Sea, Dongla in the Northern State, and Nyala in South Darfur [81]. Sudan can benefit from other African countries’ recent experience in harnessing wind energy.

With abundant onshore wind, Sudan can adopt successful African strategies and attract regional and international energy initiatives, such as the Africa-EU partnership program, the Africa Clean Energy Corridor, and Power Africa [82]. These strategies can be expedited through bilateral, multilateral, and civil commitments to increase rapidly Sudan’s wind capacity.

The development of geothermal energy resources in Sudan’s far northeast and western regions could ensure a steady supply of energy. Since the development of this type of energy relies on obtaining reliable data on temperature variation with formation depths and since the initial costs associated with various types of generating machinery are high, additional data are needed to assess the economic feasibility, as well as the environmental impact, of geothermal exploitation [83]. Some of the few available studies have revealed such potential. Geothermal energy has been discovered in the Suwakin area, the Jebel Marra volcanic mountains, and other remote areas [77]. Geothermal data collected from oil wells reveals huge potential for exploiting geothermal energy in many areas of Sudan. For example, the Suakin-1 and Bashayer-1A wells in the Red Sea region exhibit a steep geothermal gradient with a range in temperature of 73 to 81°C/km at a depth below 2,300 m. Furthermore, geological information obtained from the Bayuda Volcanic field in Merowe revealed a geothermal capacity of up to 200°C. Nevertheless, more studies are needed to estimate maximum generation capacity from this type of energy [49].

Conclusion

Combining hydroelectricity with solar, wind, and geothermal energy will substantially increase power production in Sudan and should eliminate many of the problems Sudan’s energy sector is currently experiencing. Such problems include power outages, inabilities to connect remote rural area with the national grid, and problems associated with decreasing hydropower generation capacity. Nevertheless, many obstacles remain, including the lack of governmental policies and long-term strategies to transform the energy sector by diversifying its RE resources. Such policies and strategies also need to focus on the private sector and attracting foreign investment to diversify the energy sector, because the Sudanese government lacks sufficient financial and economic resources to initiate the needed transformations. Sudan can learn from the experience of other countries in Africa that are exploiting, increasing and diversifying their RE sources, and thus link itself to such endeavours in the world outside Africa. Meantime, Sudan can import cheap electricity from Egypt’s Aswan Dam and Ethiopia’s Renaissance Dam using current interconnections. Perhaps one day a developed RE system can enable Sudan to become an energy exporter.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1. COP21 refers to the Paris climate change conference held in 2015.