Achilles: A Homeric hero enamoured with the absolute¹

1 This article was previously published, in a shorter version, in the French Freudian journal Topique 125 (2013) 4:139–55.

Abstract

This article explores through a psychoanalytical lens the character of Achilles in Homer's Iliad, the matrix behind the Western conception of heroism. The contribution reveals the psychological link binding the words and acts of the most valiant of warriors in Antiquity, which is situated in myth and termed “the Eros of the absolute.” The paroxystic ideality underlying the aforementioned myth, which is rooted in the anthropological need to believe, is at the origin of Achilles’ legendary μῆνις, that is, the flood of rage triggered by contests for supremacy, aggravated by the loss of his war comrade, aroused by the drama of aging and death, and then transfigured through song and memory. The main claim of the author is that Iliad, despite its seeming lack of attention to interiority, is launched by the archetypal emotion of wrath and owes its appeal to its hero's embrace of heroic idealism in an excessive, radical and absolute way that results in a captivating narcissism and sadomasochistic antithesis of ideality. This argument leads to the conclusion that Homer is the Father of the “primitive horde” of affects.

Achille: Un héros homérique amoureux de l'absolu

L'auteur de cet article explore sous un angle psychanalytique le caractèred'Achille dans l’Iliade d'Homère, la matrice de la conception occidentale del'héroïsme. Il met en évidence le lien psychologique unissant les mots et lesactes du guerrier le plus vaillant de l'Antiquité, qu'il érige en mythe et qu'il nomme « l’Éros de l'absolu ». L'idéalité paroxystique sous‐tendantce mythe, ancrée dans le besoin anthropologique de croire, est à l'origine dela μῆνις légendaire d'Achille, c'est‐à‐dire l'ire déclenchée par la contestation de sa préséance, qu'aura aggravée la perte de son camarade de guerre et réveilléele drame du vieillissement et de la mort et qui sera ensuite transfigurée parle chant et le souvenir. L'auteur soutient notamment que l’Iliade, en dépitde son manque apparent d'attention à l'intériorité, est mise en branle par l’émotion archétypique de la colère et doit son pouvoir d'attraction à l'adhésion de son héros à l'idéalisme héroïque, une adhésion si excessive,radicale et absolue qu'elle aboutit à un narcissisme captivant et une antithèse sadomasochiste d'idéalité. Cet argument conduit l'auteur à la conclusion qu'Homère est le Père de la « horde primitive » des affects.

Achilleus: ein homerischer Held, der ins Absolute verliebt ist

Dieser Beitrag untersucht durch eine psychoanalytische Linse den Charakter des Achilleus in Homers Ilias, dem Werk, aus dem das abendländische Verständnis des Heldentums hervorgegangen ist. Herausgearbeitet wird die psychische Verbindung zwischen den Worten und Taten dieses tapfersten aller antiken Krieger, die im Mythos gründet und hier als „Eros des Absoluten” bezeichnet wird. Die dem erwähnten Mythos zugrunde liegende paroxysmale Idealität, die in dem anthropologischen Bedürfnis zu glauben wurzelt, bildet den Ursprung des legendären μῆνις, des aufbrausenden Zornes, der durch den Streit um Vorherrschaft getriggert, durch den Verlust seines Kriegskameraden verstärkt, durch das Drama des Alterns und Sterbens geweckt und schließlich durch Gesang und Erinnerung transfiguriert wird. Die zentrale These des Autors besagt, dass die Ilias trotz der vermeintlich fehlenden Aufmerksamkeit für die Innenwelt durch das archetypische Gefühl des Zornes in Gang gehalten wird und dass sie ihre Anziehungskraft der exzessiven, radikalen und absoluten Art und Weise verdankt, in der ihr Protagonist dem heroischen Idealismus anhängt. Sie führt zu einem fesselnden Narzissmus und einer sadomasochistischen Antithese zur Idealität. Diese Überlegung zieht die Schlussfolgerung nach sich, dass Homer der Vater der “primitive Urhorde” der Affekte war.

Achille: un eroe omerico innamorato dell'assoluto

L'articolo utilizza una lente psicoanalitica per esplorare il personaggio di Achille nel poema omerico dell'Iliade: rappresentazione che costituisce in certo modo la matrice stessa della concezione occidentale di eroismo. In particolare, viene qui messo in luce il legame psicologico esistente tra le parole e le azioni del più valente eroe dell'Antichità, un legame qui collocato all'interno della dimensione del mito e chiamato “Eros dell'assoluto”. Le tinte fortemente idealizzanti e parossistiche che colorano il mito di Achille, radicate nel bisogno antropologico di credere, sono all'origine della leggendaria μῆνις dell'eroe – ovvero, l'ira dilagante scatenata da scontri per la supremazia, esacerbata dalla perdita del suo compagno d'armi, ulteriormente eccitata dai drammi legati all'invecchiamento e alla morte e infine trasfigurata attraverso il canto e la memoria. La tesi principale dell'autore è che, nonostante l'attenzione apparentemente scarsa prestata alla sfera dell'interiorità, l'Iliade trovi proprio nell'emozione archetipica dell'ira il suo motore propulsivo: il potere di attrazione del testo sarebbe anzi legato soprattutto al fatto che il suo protagonista abbraccia l'idealismo eroico in modo tanto eccessivo, radicale e assoluto da trasformarlo in un narcisismo imprigionante e in una sorta di antitesi sadomasochista dell'idealità. L'argomento porta alla conclusione che Omero è il Padre dell’”orda primitiva” degli affetti.

Aquiles: Un héroe homérico enamorado del Absoluto

Este artículo explora, a través del lente psicoanalítico, el carácter de Aquiles en La Ilíada de Homero, la matriz que subyace a la concepción occidental de heroísmo. La contribución revela el vínculo psicológico entre las palabras y los actos del más valiente de los guerreros de la Antigüedad, erigido en mito y denominado “el Eros del Absoluto”. En el origen de la legendaria μῆνις de Aquiles está la idealidad paroxística que subyace al mito mencionado, que tiene sus raíces en la necesidad antropológica de creer, es decir, el desborde de ira desencadenado por disputas por la supremacía, agravado por la pérdida de su compañero de armas, estimulado por el drama del envejecimiento y la muerte, y luego transfigurado mediante el canto y el recuerdo. La principal afirmación del autor es que La Ilíada, a pesar de su aparente falta de atención a la interioridad, está impulsada por la emoción arquetípica de la ira y debe su atracción al abrazo del héroe al idealismo heroico de una manera excesiva, radical y absoluta que da lugar a un narcisismo cautivador y a una antítesis sadomasoquista de la idealidad. Este argumento conduce a la conclusión de que Homero es el Padre de la “horda primitiva” de los afectos.

Keywords:

• Homer
• Iliad
• Achilles
• psychological myth
• Eros of the absolute
• paranoid‐schizoid position
• splitting
• idealization
• depressive position
• mourning
• mania
• sublimation

Acknowledgments

Many thanks go to Victoria Grace who translated the original French version of my manuscript into English and reviewed the abundant new material that I added in this revised version. I would also like to express my gratitude to the editor‐in‐chief of IJP, Dana Birksted‐Breen, the associate editor of IJP, Lucy Lafarge, and my anonymous reviewers who enriched my paper considerably with their insightful suggestions and constructive comments. Moreover, I would like to thank the French psychoanalysts and researchers of clinical psychology and psychopathology at the University Paris Diderot – Paris 7: Laurie Laufer, Simone Korff‐Sausse, Sylvie Le Poulichet and Philippe Givre who all made a valuable contribution to the metapsychological background of my theses. Last but not least, I would like to thank Marie Maldague from the University Paris Diderot – Paris 7 who inspired in me the willingness and pleasure to work on the original texts of British analysts.

Notes

1 This article was previously published, in a shorter version, in the French Freudian journal Topique 125 (2013) 4:139–55.

2 On “Achilles’ heel,” see Gantz (1996, p. 231), and Burgess (2009, pp. 11–13).

3 Alongside the Western tradition stemming from Homer and theorized by Aristotle – for example, Argonautica by Apollonius Rhodius, Aeneid by Virgil, The Divine Comedy by Dante, or Paradise Lost by Milton – traditional heroic narratives have emerged in diverse cultures, often completely independent from the Homeric model, such as the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh, Sanskrit Mahābhārata, and the medieval European Chanson de geste. On this subject, see Sauzeau (2000, p. 9).

4 Regarding the relation between the Iliad and historical societies, see Morris (2002, pp. 57–91), Ulf (1992, pp. 557–8) and Van Wees (1992). More specifically, on the Aristotelian distinction between real events and the facts portrayed in the Homeric narrative, see Vernant (2007, vol. 1, p. IX).

5 The epic dialect combines linguistic forms of varying dates and origins to serve the specific needs of the aoidos. On this issue, see Parry (1971).

6 On this ‘need to believe’, see the eponymous psychoanalytical work by Mijolla‐Mellor (2004) as well as Kristeva (2007).

7 See Freud's analysis of the myth of Prometheus (1932), as well as in the collection of texts inspired by him in issue 22 of Libres Cahiers pour la psychanalyse (2010). See also the seductive reading of the myth of Prometheus by Birraux (2013), who explores the necessity for the adolescent to renounce his infantile omnipotence in order to gain maturity.

8 Marcuse, Éros et Civilisation (1955, pp. 143–4).

9 Cf. also the remarks of Dodds (1951, p. 26), on the Homeric notion of personality. On the opposition between epics and fictional psychology, see Kristeva (1986, p. 173 sq.).

10 On the personality and inner life of the poem's characters, see the work of Gill (1996) and Pelliccia (1995).

11 All translations of the Iliad appearing in the article are taken from Homer (1999).

12 According to the etymological hypothesis put forward by the Ancients, μῆνις is associated with μένω [to remain, to not change], since it relates to an abiding feeling. See Chantraine (1999), s. v. μῆνις.

13 On μῆνις, see the remarks of Monsacré in her critical apparatus of the original text of the Iliade (2007, vol. 1, p. 3, n. 2). See also the brilliant analysis of this affect (inherent to Achilles) by Dumoulié (2012, pp. 16–23).

14 On the rare privilege of γέρας, constituting a service accorded on special grounds in recognition of superiority, notably through rank, function, or worth and accomplishment, see Vernant (1989, pp. 41–79).

15 On Ἄτη in Homeric texts, see Dodds (1951, p. 11‐29).

16 On the father of the primitive horde, see Freud (1912–13).

17 On primal envy and greed, see Klein (1957). Given the subject treated in this paper, I also encourage the reader to refer to Klein's analysis (1963b) of the Oresteia by Eschylus, where she examines the Greek concept of Ὕβρις (Hubris), that is, the excessive arrogance and cupidity punished by Δίκη (Diki), otherwise known as judgment.

18 Cf., for example, 24, 28–39, where Paris, misled by Ἀτη, committed the condemnable act of favouring Aphrodite to the detriment of all the other goddesses because she offered him “grievous lustfulness” [μαχλοσύνην ἀλεγεινήν].

19 On the mythical attribution to the gods of the libidinal drives that man must renounce, see Freud (1932, p. 193).

20 See Chantraine (1999, s. v. Ἀχιλλεύς). For more details on the etymology of Achilleus (< achos and laos), see Nagy (1998).

21 On this issue, see Devereux (1979, p. 211–241).

22 For an extensive discussion on Achilles’ narcissism, see McCary (1982).

23 The “malady of ideality” is a Mallarmean notion adopted in psychoanalysis by Chasseguet‐Smirgel (1975). Here, I follow the interpretation of J. Kristeva (2005, pp. 447–8).

24 My reading of the Iliad at this point is inspired by McAfee (2017), who cross‐reads Klein's conception of paranoid‐schizoid position and Kristeva's theory of ideality in order to highlight the politics of Donald Trump.

25 “My other half” is based on the French translation, “Mon autre moi‐même,” by Mazon (Homer, 1998, vol. 3, p. 63).

26 Expanding on Abraham's and Glover's theories, Klein (1934, 1963a) maintained that in certain cases, the phantasy underpinning the act of suicide aims to protect the internalized good objects (or too‐good objects) as well as the part of the Ego that identifies itself with the good object. Hence the hypothesis that suicide allows the union of the Ego with its gratifying objects.

27 Omophagia or omophagy is the eating of raw flesh. The term is of importance in the context of the cult worship of Dionysos.

28 Although the term implies topical, dynamic, and economic changes, here I focus on the quantitative aspect of libidinal excitement as it seeks stability in the psychological apparatus (Freud, 1924).

29 The word “ruminating” follows the French translation cited above, “ruminer,” in the sense of digesting, which thus entails the notion of nourishment (Homer, 1998, vol. 2, p. 365).

30 In Monsacré's commentaries on the original text (Homer, 1998, vol. 3, p. 387), she remarks that the word τέρπω expresses both enjoyment and satisfaction, and that it is often used in the context of a meal. Consequently, tears and pain resemble food that is “eaten” and “digested”, thus bringing physical satisfaction.

31 Cf. 23, 98 where Achilles dreams that he satisfies/enjoys himself with sad mourning in the arms of Patroclus.

32 On the affinities between Achilles and Sarpedon, see Vernant (1989, p. 51).

33 Translation taken from Homer (1995, chant 11, pp. 489–91).

34 On the association between ἥρως (hero), ὥρα (beautiful season), and Ἥρα (Hera; cf. Heracles < κλέος of Ἥρα “Glory of Hera”), see Sauzeau (2000, pp. 26–7).

35 On the notion of ἥβη in the Homeric corpus (designating a warrior's vigour, virility, and radiance as opposed to a specific age group), see Vernant (1989, 59 sq.). Regarding the interpretation of this concept in the Ancient Greek world (especially the Classical and Pre‐Hellenistic era) as Youth Culture, see the article by Devereux (1979).

36 See the edited volume by Mijolla‐Mellor (2012), which explores the evolution of the complex and fluctuating notion of sublimation in the Freudian corpus and its influence on psychoanalytical thinking.

37 On the link between heroism and (the revised Freudian notion of) sublimation, see Mijolla‐Mellor (2009, pp. 201–17).

38 On this function of poetry in the Odyssey, see Arvanitakis (2008 pp. 74–118).

39 On the link – probably etymological as well – between μῆνις and μνήμη, see Dumoulié (2012, pp. 23–4).

40 On the Greek paradigm of truth and Heidegger, see Christopoulou (2007, p. 51).

41 Paroxystic (or paroxysmal or paroxysmic) derives from παροξυσμός (‘irritation’), a severe attack or sudden intensification of a disease, usually recurring periodically.