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Abstract
Sociocultural theory is increasingly popular as a paradigm for research in education. A recent member in this family of theories is introduced—cultural–historical activity theory (CHAT)—that shows much promise to complement and invigorate the field of educational change, a large, multi‐faceted, and persistent problematic. In particular, CHAT‐based research can address five areas where educational change research experiences weaknesses and shortcomings: (1) the failure to fully analyse the context; (2) a tendency towards reductionism rather than embracing complexity; (3) low sensitivity to the effects of power and politics; (4) lack of concern with emotions and identity; and (5) the rapidity at which new innovations are often introduced. These arguments are exemplified with a case study of a secondary school in Singapore that had devised a new inquiry‐based science curriculum. The paper concludes with some implications for promoting CHAT‐based research in educational change.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by project number CRP 10/07 LYJ from the Centre for Research in Pedagogy and Practice at the National Institute of Education, Singapore. I gratefully thank Rubina Pasha, Md. Abdus Sattar, and Shien Chue for assisting in the data collection.
Notes
1. In general, research that relies heavily on Vygotskian lenses to understand activity uses the term ‘sociocultural’, whereas studies that follow A. N. Leont’ev favour ‘cultural‐historical’. Keeping with the thrust of this paper to showcase recent developments in 3rd‐ and 4th‐generation activity theory, I discuss authors that align themselves with Leont’ev or Yrjö Engeström and bypass prototypical, albeit important work, in activity theory such as the Kamehameha Elementary Education Program (KEEP) (Tharp and Gallimore Citation1989).
2. Educational reform networks share two conceptual parallels with CHAT in that members have a common purpose or object to orient their actions and overcoming inherent tensions in the network/system by members are obligatory (Lieberman and Grolnick Citation2005). Actor network theory is somewhat similar to CHAT, except that it collapses the distinction between human and non‐human agency which is maintained in CHAT (Kaptelinin and Nardi Citation2006). Analysis of networks, including policy ecologies (see Weaver‐Hightower Citation2008), can make thematic similar concerns with CHAT (i.e. actors, relationships, action, complex environments)—although the latter claims to balance structure and agency more evenly.
3. We define educational change writ large (i.e. questions of reform, innovation, sustainability, change management, leadership, organizational culture, school effectiveness, and so forth) following Hargreaves et al. (Citation2005) and Lieberman (Citation2005).
4. This is due to the critical role of mediators in the system that combine both individual (e.g. subject) and collective (e.g. rules, community) elements. Moreover, operations are associated at the bodily and unconscious level, whereas actions are conscious processes targeting goals in the material world. Since they are interdependent during any activity, the distinctions between social/material and internal/external are minimized.
5. One variant showing how CHAT is really a theory for praxis is during the co‐generative dialogues that have been adopted by urban science educators in the US (Tobin and Roth Citation2006). Here, students and teachers are given plentiful and safe opportunities to jointly identify weaknesses and strengths to improve classroom lessons.
6. Other examples of how CHAT is accommodating of other social theories would include critical literacy‐cum‐advocacy work in ‘Third Spaces’ (e.g. Gutiérrez et al. Citation1999) and funds of knowledge (e.g. Lee Citation2001).
7. Undoubtedly beneficial for at‐risk and minority children in the US, this programme has not been scaled‐up. It seems highly resource‐dependent in terms of manpower; furthermore, imposing further institutional structure would drastically reduce the strength of its informal learning milieu.
8. Pseudonyms are used here, including the name of the programme.
9. Starting in 2004, this government reform initiative encouraged local teachers to eschew rote learning, memorization, and traditional assessment techniques in favour of project work, open‐book tests, and higher‐order thinking skills infused into every school subject. Above all, it called for experiential and engaged learning as opposed to what has supposedly typified East Asian pedagogies: teacher‐centredness, assessment‐driven learning, low demands on critical thought, and reliance on authoritative sources.
10. Tracking is a three‐decade old educational policy in Singapore; schools that make provision for students in lower‐tracked streams are called ‘neighbourhood schools’.
11. She wanted an unbiased external evaluation of PlusScience to improve the programme. A curriculum specialist from the MOE introduced us to the head. Most of the data was gathered with the help of two research assistants and a doctoral student. Our approach was deliberately non‐interventionist; we did not interfere with the teaching and planning of this curriculum except to offer advice on grading and assist in developing test items on process skills when asked.
12. This advocated critical/creative reasoning and learning as a life‐long and enjoyable journey. Calling for a revamp of current forms of instruction, collaborative, interdisciplinary learning (e.g. combining the sciences and humanities) was highly valued, and project work became the ideal vehicle for developing these so‐called 21st‐century skills and attitudes for every school‐going pupil in the country.
13. There were only 29 prototype schools out of ∼ 360 schools in Singapore. Only two schools (Chester included) fulfilled the requirements for exemplary innovations in science in 2007.
14. By making PlusScience an action research project for the science department, it additionally satisfied a recent MOE evaluation criterion for school practitioners to improve classroom practices through evidence‐based research. Action research, from conversations with teachers, has caused much anxiety and stress, as this had never been emphasized in practice or theory.
15. Of course, what is eventually necessary depends of the scope and purpose of the research problematic (Gaddis Citation2002).
16. A short promotional video clip was made; teachers from other schools were encouraged to attend workshops held at Chester to learn how they could replicate similar programmes.
17. ‘Sec’ is an abbreviation of secondary.
18. These run at different timescales, which adds yet more layers of complexity (Lemke Citation2000).
19. The activity triangle can map the object and contradictions within activity but is less useful when identifying contexts, emotions/identity, and the rapidity of change.
20. Even then, there was a complete absence of student‐led investigations at the open‐inquiry level.
21. Some schools are known to introduce subject matter from the senior grades downwards so as to give their students a head start in preparing for the terminal examinations.
22. Regardless of whether it originates from planned action or external circumstances, such as an economic recession.
23. Slightly edited transcript that used the following standard conversation analytic conventions to show emotions: (1.0)—time in seconds; (.) micro‐pause, less than 0.2 s; ?, rising intonation; underline, word or phrase is emphasized; ::, lengthening of phoneme.