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ABSTRACT
This paper explores the parallels and connections between the histories of Taiwan and the Oceanic realm, focusing on the period between the 17th century and the present. It raises the question of whether or not Taiwan might be thought of as ‘Outermost Oceania’, a zone that is on the periphery of the island Pacific but still linked to it. The paper depicts the relationship between Taiwan and the Oceanic world in terms of seven ‘modalities’ of Pacific history – an Austronesian Pacific, a Southeast Asian Pacific, a European Pacific, a Chinese Pacific, a British Pacific, a Japanese Pacific and an American Pacific. All seven modalities of Taiwan/Pacific history converge in the 17th century and continue to co-exist in the present. Through the systematic comparison of Taiwan history with that of three locations in Remote Oceania – Western Micronesia (Palau, Guam and the Northern Marianas), Hawai‘i and Aotearoa New Zealand – the paper explores these modalities of Pacific history with reference to processes of settlement, colonization, the expansion and contraction of imperial power and the conflicts to which these processes give rise.
Acknowledgements
I thank Paul D’Arcy and Philippa Riley for their attentive and encouraging reading of this paper. I am also indebted to Justin Tighe, Phyllis Yu-ting Huang, Du Liping, Francis Chia-hui Lin, David Holm, Jeremy Taylor, Mark Harrison, Sophie McIntyre, Ben Liu, Anthony Monte, Scott Writer, Steve Bradbury, Yang Tsung-rong, and the late Bruce Jacobs for many years of conversation about the history of Taiwan.
Notes
1 Oskar Spate includes discussion of Taiwan in his depiction of the 17th century Pacific World in O.H.K. Spate, Monopolists and Freebooters – The Pacific since Magellan, Vol. 2 (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1983).
2 A key synthesis of archaeological, anthropological and linguistic work is Peter Bellwood, James Fox and Darrell Tryon, eds, The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives (Canberra: Department of Anthropology, Australian National University, 1995).
3 See Matt K. Matsuda, ‘About Ancestry’, this volume; David Blundell, ‘Taiwan Austronesian Language Heritage Connecting Pacific Island Peoples: Diplomacy and Values’, International Journal of Asia-Pacific Studies 7, no. 1 (2011): 75–91.
4 Anne-Marie Brady, ed., Looking North, Looking South: China, Taiwan, and the South Pacific (Singapore: World Scientific Publishing, 2010); Joel Atkinson, ‘China–Taiwan Diplomatic Competition and the Pacific Islands’, The Pacific Review 23, no. 4 (2010): 407–27.
5 Bronwen Douglas, ‘Terra Australis to Oceania: Racial Geography in the “Fifth Part of the World”’, Journal of Pacific History (hereinafter JPH) 45, no. 2 (2010): 179–210.
6 See Matt K. Matsuda, Pacific Worlds: A History of Seas, Peoples and Cultures (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012) and also O.H.K. Spate’s trilogy, The Pacific since Magellan. For the art history category of Oceania which includes Australia and Insular Southeast Asia, see Eric Kjellgren, Oceania: Art of the Pacific Islands in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York: Yale University Press, 2007).
7 For an overview of the division between Near and Remote Oceania, see Paul D’Arcy, The People of the Sea – Environment, Identity, and History in Oceania (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2006), 9–11. For the original presentation of the concept see Andrew Pawley and Roger Green, ‘Dating the Dispersal of the Oceanic Languages’, Oceanic Linguistics 12, no. 1/2 (1973): 1–67, and for a further elaboration, see R.C. Green, ‘Near and Remote Oceania – Disestablishing “Melanesia” in Culture History’, in Man and a Half: Essays in Pacific Anthropology and Ethnobiology in Honour of Ralph Bulmer, ed. Andrew Pawley (Auckland: The Polynesian Society, 1991), 491–502.
8 A good example of these diagrams can be found in Malcolm Ross, Andrew Pawley and Meredith Osmond, ‘Introduction’, in The Lexicon of Proto Oceanic: The Culture and Environment of Ancestral Oceanic Society, Vol. 5 – People: Body and Mind, ed. Malcolm Ross, Andrew Pawley and Meredith Osmond (Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics, 2016), 9–10. For a broad overview of the Austronesian languages, see Robert Blust, The Austronesian Languages, rev. ed. (Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, 2013). For the Oceanic languages, see John Lynch, Malcolm Ross and Terry Crowley, The Oceanic Languages (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 2002).
9 See Douglas, ‘Terra Australis to Oceania’.
10 Maria Cruz Berrocal and Cheng-hwa Tsang, eds, Historical Archaeology of Early Modern Colonialism in Asia-Pacific: The Southwest Pacific and Oceanian Regions (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2017).
11 A careful English-language discussion of Taiwan’s transformation into a space in which culturally-Chinese people were the majority can be found in John Robert Shepherd, Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier, 1600–1800 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
12 For general overviews of the language situation in Taiwan and the political issues that are tied up with it, see Jennifer M. Wei, Language Choice and Identity Politics in Taiwan (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2008) and Jean-François Dupré, Culture Politics and Linguistic Recognition in Taiwan: Ethnicity, National Identity, and the Party System (London and New York: Routledge, 2017).
13 For language revitalization efforts in Taiwan, see the relevant chapters in D. Victoria Rau and Margaret Florey, eds, Documenting and Revitalizing Austronesian Languages (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007).
14 For the Dutch and Spanish period on Taiwan, see Shepherd, Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier, 47–90; Tonio Andrade, Commerce, Culture, and Conflict: Taiwan Under European Rule, 1624–1662 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000); Tonio Andrade, How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008); José Eugenio Borao Mateo, The Spanish Experience in Taiwan, 1626–1642: The Baroque Ending of a Renaissance Endeavor (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2009); Chiu Hsin-hui, The Colonial ‘Civilizing Process’ in Dutch Formosa, 1624–1662 (Leiden: Brill, 2008). For the expulsion of the Dutch and the ultimate establishment of Qing control, see Young-Tsu Wong, China’s Conquest of Taiwan in the Seventeenth Century: Victory at Full Moon (Singapore: Springer, 2017).
15 A standard narrative history of Guam is Robert F. Rogers, Destiny’s Landfall: A History of Guam (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1995). The frameworks and norms of this type of history have recently been challenged in works such as Vicente M. Diaz Repositioning the Missionary: Rewriting the Histories of Colonialism, Native Catholicism, and Indigeneity in Guam (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2010) and Nicholas J. Goetzfridt, Guahan: A Bibliographic History (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2011). The latter provides a critical analysis of scholarly and semi-scholarly writing on Guam that also challenges dominant approaches and concepts, with an introduction by Anne Perez Hattori which provides a sustained critique of the dominant representations of Guam’s history. For the colonization of the Marianas as a whole, see Rainer F. Buschmann, Edward R. Slack and James B. Tueller, Navigating the Spanish Lake: The Pacific in the Iberian World, 1521–1898 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2014), 97–118; Frank J. Quimby, ‘Spain in the Mariana Islands, 1521–1898’, in Historical Archaeology of Early Modern Colonialism in Asia-Pacific, ed. Berrocal and Tsang, 146–94. For the religious changes in this period, see Alexandre Coello De La Rosa, ‘Jesuit Missionary Work in the Mariana Islands (1668–1769)’ in ibid., 219–43. For the wider changes in Western Micronesia in the areas east of the Marianas, the classic work is Francis X. Hezel, First Taint of Civilization: A History of the Caroline and Marshall Islands in Pre-Colonial Days, 1521–1885 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1983).
16 The Hispanization of many parts the Carolines was extremely limited, while its effects in the Marianas were considerable. The Sinification of the plains areas on the west coast of Taiwan was intensive, while the east coast and the mountains remained primarily Austronesian spaces. For details see, for example, Chapter 11 of Shepherd, Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier and Chapters 4 and Chapter 11 of Hezel, First Taint of Civilization.
17 For the colonization of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands, see Francis X. Hezel, Strangers in Their Own Land: A Century of Colonial Rule in the Caroline and Marshall Islands (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2003).
18 The standard work on Japan’s empire in Micronesia is Mark Peattie, Nan’yō: The Rise and Fall of the Japanese in Micronesia, 1885–1945 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1992). A sense of the connections between the Japanese literary representation of Taiwan and of the Pacific can be found in Faye Yuan Kleeman, Under an Imperial Sun: Japanese Colonial Literature of Taiwan and the South (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2003) and Robert Thomas Tierney, Tropics of Savagery: The Culture of Japanese Empire in Comparative Frame (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010).
19 The best short study of the Japanese colonial period is Harry J. Lamley, ‘Taiwan under Japanese Rule, 1895–1945: The Vicissitudes of Colonialism’, in Taiwan: A New History – Expanded Edition, ed. Murray A. Rubinstein, (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2007), 201–60. Major English-language monographs on the institutional structures of the Japanese colonial system include Hui-yu Caroline Ts’ai, Taiwan in Japan’s Empire Building: An Institutional Approach to Colonial Engineering (London and New York: Routledge, 2009) and Chih-ming Ka, Japanese Colonialism in Taiwan: Land Tenure, Development, and Dependency, 1895–1945 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995). On the cultural effects of Japanese colonial rule in Taiwan, see Leo T.S. Ching, Becoming “Japanese”: Colonial Taiwan and the Politics of Identity Formation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). On Indigenous Austronesians, see Scott Simon, ‘Making Natives: Japan and the Creation of Indigenous Formosa’, in Japanese Taiwan: Colonial Rule and its Contested Legacy, ed. Andrew D. Morris (London and New York: Bloomsbury, 2015), 75–92.
20 On overall developments in this period, see Ralph Clough, ‘Taiwan under Nationalist Rule, 1949–1982’, in The Cambridge History of China Volume 15: The People’s Republic, Part 2: Revolutions within the Chinese Revolution, 1966–1982, ed. Roderick MacFarquhar and John K. Fairbank (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 815–76; Peter Chen-main Wang, ‘A Bastion Created, A Regime Reformed, An Economy Reengineered, 1949–1970’, in Taiwan: A New History, ed. Rubinstein, 320–38. On cultural policy, see Allen Chun, ‘From Nationalism to Nationalizing: Cultural Imagination and State Formation in Postwar Taiwan’, Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 31 (1994): 49–69.
21 See, for example, Frank Quimby, ‘Americanised, Decolonised, Globalised and Federalised: The Northern Mariana Islands since 1978’, JPH 48, no. 4 (2013): 464–83; Frank Quimby ‘Fortress Guåhån: Chamorro Nationalism, Regional Economic Integration and US Defence Interests Shape Guam’s Recent History’, JPH 46, no. 3 (2011): 357–80; Vicente. M. Diaz, ‘Simply Chamorro: Telling Tales of Demise and Survival in Guam’, The Contemporary Pacific 6, no. 1 (1994): 29–58.
22 Murray A. Rubinstein, ‘Taiwan’s Socioeconomic Modernization, 1971–1996’, in Taiwan: A New History, ed. Rubinstein, 366–402.
23 Michael Stainton, ‘Aboriginal Self-Government’, in Taiwan: A New History, ed. Rubinstein, 419–35; Shu-Min Huang and Shao-Hua Liu, ‘Discrimination and Incorporation of Taiwanese Indigenous Austronesian Peoples’, Asian Ethnicity 17, no. 2 (2016): 294–312; Scott Simon, ‘Paths to Autonomy: Aboriginality and the Nation in Taiwan’, in The Margins of Becoming: Identity and Culture in Taiwan, ed. Carsten Storm and Mark Harrison (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2007), 221–41.
24 For discussions of Taiwan identity, see Stéphane Corcuff, ed. Memories of the Future: National Identity Issues and the Search for a New Taiwan (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2002); Mark Harrison, ‘Where is Taiwanese Identity?’ in The Margins of Becoming, ed. Storm and Harrison, 241–55.
25 The most important work on the formation of the Hawaiian kingdom is Paul D’Arcy, Transforming Hawai‘i: Balancing Coercion and Consent in Eighteenth-century Kānaka Maoli Statecraft (Canberra: ANU Press, 2018). Earlier studies include Patrick Vinton Kirch, How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai‘i (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010) and Robert J. Hommon, The Ancient Hawaiian State: Origins of a Political Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).
26 The best-known conceptualization of these processes is by Marshall Sahlins in his Radcliffe-Brown Lecture in Social Anthropology, ‘Cosmologies of Capitalism: The Trans-Pacific Sector of “The World System”’, Proceedings of the British Academy 74 (1988): 1–51.
27 A key study of the effects of sandalwood on Hawai‘i is Patrick V. Kirch and Marshall Sahlins, Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the Kingdom of Hawaii – Volume One, Historical Ethnography (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1992). See the critical review by Lilikalā Kame‘eleihiwa in The Contemporary Pacific 6, no. 1 (1994): 214–8.
28 Richard Hawkins, ‘The Impact of Sugar Cane Cultivation on the Economy and Society of Hawaii, 1835–1900’, Iiles i Imperis: Estudis d’història de les societats en el món colonial i postcolonial 9 (2006): 59–77; John M. Liu, ‘Race, Ethnicity, and the Sugar Plantation System: Asian Labor in Hawaii, 1850–1900’, in Labor Immigration under Capitalism: Asian Workers in the United States before World War II, ed. Lucie Cheng and Edna Bonacich (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 186–210; Ronald Takaki, ‘“An Entering Wedge”: The Origins of the Sugar Plantation and a Multi-ethnic Working Class in Hawaii’ Labor History 23, no. 1 (1982): 32–46.
29 For a broad overview of the British in the Pacific, see Jane Samson, ed., British Imperial Strategies in the Pacific, 1750–1900 (Aldershot and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2002); Donald Denoon with Marivic Wyndham ‘Australia and the Western Pacific’, in The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III – The Nineteenth Century, ed. Andrew Porter (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 546–72; Raewyn Dalziel ‘Southern Islands: New Zealand and Polynesia’, in ibid., 573–96. See also Judith A. Bennett, ‘Holland, Britain and Germany in Melanesia’, in Tides of History: the Pacific Islands in the Twentieth Century, ed. K.R. Howe, Robert C. Kiste and Brij V. Lal (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1994), 40–70; Barrie Macdonald, Cinderellas of Empire: Towards a History of Kiribati and Tuvalu (Suva: USP Press, 2001).
30 The key historian of this development was Merze Tate, who approached the issue from the viewpoint of Great Power rivalry in the Pacific. See Merze Tate, ‘Great Britain and the Sovereignty of Hawaii’, Pacific Historical Review 31, no. 4 (1962): 327–48; Merze Tate, ‘Hawaii: A Symbol of Anglo-American Rapprochement’, Political Science Quarterly 79, no. 4 (1964): 555–75.
31 On the US and the Philippine revolution, see E. San Juan Jr., U.S. Imperialism and Revolution in the Philippines (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007). A recent examination of Filipino history in Hawai‘i connected with the 100th anniversary of the arrival of the first significant group of Filipino migrants is Luis V. Teodoro, Jr., ed., Out of this Struggle: The Filipinos in Hawaii (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007).
32 A major recent study of Sun Yat-sen in Hawai‘i is Lorenz Gonschor ‘Revisiting the Hawaiian Influence on the Political Thought of Sun Yat-sen’, JPH 52, no. 1 (2017): 52–67. Earlier works include Irma Tan Soong, ‘Sun Yat-sen’s Christian Schooling in Hawai‘i’, The Hawaiian Journal of History 31 (1997): 151–78; Yansheng Ma Lum and Raymond Mun Kong Lum, Sun Yat-sen in Hawai‘i: Activities and Supporters (Honolulu: Hawaii Chinese History Center, 1999).
33 On the KMT in the South Pacific before World War II, see John Fitzgerald, Big White Lie: Chinese Australians in White Australia (Sydney: UNSW Press, 2007), 153–76.
34 The role of Hawai‘i as a model for Japanese colonial strategy in Taiwan is discussed in Mariko Iijima, ‘Sugar Islands in the Pacific: Taiwan as a Protégé of Hawai‘i’, Historische Anthropologie 27, no. 3 (2019): 361–84.
35 The 1940 Japanese propaganda film Nanshin Taiwan has a number of Hawai‘i-inflected tropes in its representation of Taiwan, particularly in its depictions of ‘peaceful’ Taiwan Aborigines. For a discussion of direct linkages between Japan, Hawai‘i and Taiwan, see Eiichiro Azuma, In Search of our Frontier: Japanese American and Settler Colonialism in the Construction of Japan’s Borderless Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2019), 183–216; Martin Dusinberre et al., ‘The Changing Face of Labour between Hawai‘i, Japan and colonial Taiwan’, Historische Anthropologie 27, no. 3 (2019): 336–60.
36 Noenoe Silva, Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004).
37 On the violence of the relationships between the Japanese state and Taiwan Aborigines, see Toulouse-Antonin Roy, ‘War in the Camphor Zone: Indigenous Resistance to Colonial Capitalism in Upland Taiwan, 1895–1915’, Japan Forum (published online December 2020), https://doi.org/10.1080/09555803.2020.1794931 (accessed April 30, 2021). For representations of Japanese repression of Aboriginal uprisings in Taiwan, see Leo Ching, ‘Savage Construction and Civility Making: The Musha Incident and Aboriginal Representations in Colonial Taiwan’, Positions: Asia Critique 8, no. 3 (2000): 795–818.
38 For politics and labour relations in Hawai‘i, see Noel J. Kent, Hawaii: Islands under the Influence (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1992); for Taiwan, see Lamley, ‘Taiwan under Japanese Rule’, 201–60.
39 See Chi-huei Huang, ‘The Yamatodamashi of the Takasago Volunteers of Taiwan: A Reading of the Postcolonial Situation’, in Globalizing Japan: Ethnography of the Japanese presence in Asia, Europe, and America, ed. Harumi Befu and Sylvie Guichard-Anguis (London and New York: Routledge, 2001), 222–50. A relatively conventional military history of the Japanese-American soldiers who fought in World War II is by James M. McCaffrey, Going for Broke: Japanese American Soldiers in the War Against Nazi Germany (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013) whereas a critical analysis of the cultural representation of Japanese-American soldiers can be found in Takashi Fujitani ‘Go For Broke, the Movie, Japanese American Soldiers in U.S. National, Military, and Racial Discourses’, in Perilous Memories: The Asia-Pacific War(s), ed. Takashi Fujitani, Geoffrey M. White and Lisa Yoneyama (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001), 239–66.
40 A complex illustration of the connections between Taiwan and Hawai‘i and the politics of the Cold War alliance is the 1979 unmasking of Taiwan government spies at the University of Hawai‘i described by Oliver Lee in ‘Taiwanese Spies on Campus’, New Political Science 1, no. 1 (1979): 76–8.
41 See the critique of ‘immigrant hegemony’ in Haunani-Kay Trask, ‘Settlers of Color and “Immigrant” Hegemony: “Locals” in Hawai‘i’, Amerasia Journal 26, no. 2 (2000): 1–24, and the discussion of these issues in Candace Fujikane and Jonathan Y. Okamura, eds, Asian Settler Colonialism: From Local Governance to the Habits of Everyday Life in Hawai‘i (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i, 2008).
42 For an overview of the Native Hawaiian critique of the current situation, see Noelani Goodyear-Kaopua, Ikaika Hussey, and Erin Kahunawaika‘ala Wright, eds, A Nation Rising: Hawaiian Movements for Life, Land, and Sovereignty (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014).
43 The best-known overview of the Māori history that links the wider Austronesian story to the developments of the last two and a half centuries is the introductory chapter by Atholl Anderson in Atholl Anderson, Judith Binney and Aroha Harris, Tangata Whenua: A History (Auckland: Bridget Williams Books, 2015).
44 See Tony Ballantyne ‘The State, Politics and Power, 1769–1893’, in The New Oxford History of New Zealand, ed. Giselle Byrnes (South Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 2009). See, also, James Belich, Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders, From Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century (Auckland: Penguin, 2007).
45 For Taiwan, see Shepherd, Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier. For Aotearoa New Zealand, see Alan Ward, A Show of Justice: Racial ‘Amalgamation’ in Nineteenth Century New Zealand (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973).
46 See Ng Chin-keong, Trade and Society: The Amoy Network on the China Coast 1683–1735, 2nd ed. (Singapore: NUS Press, 2015) and Gang Zhao, The Qing Opening to the Ocean: Chinese Maritime Policy, 1684–1757 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2013).
47 The shift from a Chinese-dominated to a British-dominated Southeast Asian economic order is mapped in Carl A. Trocki, ‘Chinese Pioneering in Eighteenth-Century Southeast Asia’, in The Last Stand of Asian Autonomies: Responses to Modernity in the Diverse States of Southeast Asia and Korea, 1750–1900, ed. Anthony Reid (London and New York: Palgrave, 1997), 83–101.
48 There had been a brief British presence in Taiwan in the 17th century in the wake of the expulsion of the Dutch, but its influence was small. See Derek Massarella, ‘Chinese, Tartars and “Thea” or a Tale of Two Companies: The English East India Company and Taiwan in the Late Seventeenth Century’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Third Series 3, no. 3 (1993): 393–426.
49 A condensed discussion of British influence in Taiwan in the 19th century can be found in Shih-Shan Henry Tsai, Maritime Taiwan: Historical Encounter with the East and the West (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2009), 63–86. See, also, Robert Gardella, ‘From Treaty Ports to Provincial Status, 1860–1894’, in Taiwan: A New History, ed. Rubinstein, 163–200.
50 The most famous missionary figure in Taiwan in this era was the Canadian Presbyterian George Leslie Mackay. For more on his life, see Clyde R. Forsberg Jr., ed., The Life and Legacy of George Leslie Mackay: An Interdisciplinary Study of Canada’s First Presbyterian Missionary to Northern Taiwan (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012). We can compare Mackay’s mission work in Taiwan to that of the Presbyterian Alexander Don among the Chinese community in New Zealand in the same period. For this, see Brian Moloughney, ‘Translating Culture: Rethinking New Zealand’s Chineseness’, in East by South: China in the Australasian Imagination, ed. Charles Ferrall, Paul Millar, and Keren Smith (Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2005), 389–406. The New Hebrides (Vanuatu) is a key example of a place in the South Pacific in which Presbyterian missionary activity had a powerful effect on social and political life, see J.H. Proctor, ‘Scottish Missionaries and the Governance of the New Hebrides’, Journal of Church and State 41, no. 2 (1999): 349–72.
51 For resistance in Taiwan, see Roy, ‘War in the Camphor Zone’; Ching, ‘Savage Construction and Civility Making’. For resistance in New Zealand, see Judith Binney, Encircled Lands: Te Urewera, 1820–1921 (Auckland: Bridget Williams Books, 2009).
52 See Hiroyuki Ogawa, ‘The Anglo-Japanese Inter-imperial Relations and Ideas on the Future of the Japanese Empire’, in Colonial Legacies and Contemporary Studies of China and Chineseness: Unlearning Binaries, Strategizing Self, ed. Chih-yu Shih, Prapin Manomaivibool, Mariko Tanigaki and Swaran Singh (Singapore: World Scientific, 2020), 307–38.
53 See Ann Trotter, ‘Friend to Foe? New Zealand and Japan, 1900–1937’, in Japan and New Zealand – 150 Years, ed. Roger Peren (Palmerston North: New Zealand Centre for Japanese Studies, 1999), 65–84.
54 Of particular importance in this regard were the New Zealanders and Japanese involved with the Institute of Pacific Relations, a key liberally oriented international discussion organization active between the 1920s and 1930s. See Tomoko Akami, Internationalizing the Pacific: The United States, Japan and the Institute of Pacific Relations, 1919–1945 (London and New York: Routledge, 2002).
55 On the idea of Taiwan as a model colony, see Nadin Heé, ‘Taiwan under Japanese Rule. Showpiece of a Model Colony? Historiographical Tendencies in Narrating Colonialism’, History Compass 12, no. 8 (2014): 632–41. For a discussion of New Zealand as a race relations model amongst colonial societies, see James Bennett, ‘Maori as Honorary Members of the White Tribe’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 29, no. 3 (2001): 33–54.
56 On the relationship between New Zealand and the British world, see David Pearson, ‘The Ties that Unwind: Civic and Ethnic Imaginings in New Zealand’, Nations and Nationalism 6, no. 1 (2000): 91–100. For a study of the position of first generation English migrants in New Zealand in the post-war era, see David Pearson, ‘Ambiguous Immigrants? Examining the Changing Status of the English in New Zealand’, Nations and Nationalism 20, no. 3 (2014): 503–22.
57 See Alistair Shaw, ‘Telling the Truth about People’s China’ (PhD thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 2010).
58 See Tania Boyer, ‘Problems in Paradise: Taiwanese Immigrants to Auckland, New Zealand’, Asia Pacific Viewpoint 37, no. 1 (1996): 59–79.
59 On this organizational structure, see Kwee Hui Kian, ‘Pockets of Empire: Integrating the Studies on Social Organizations in Southeast China and Southeast Asia’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27, no. 3 (2007): 618–32.
60 The key text on the transformations caused in the Pacific by the trade with China remains K.R. Howe, Where the Waves Fall: A New South Sea Islands History from First Settlement to Colonial Rule (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1984).