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Abstract
Our research compares and contrasts the transnational activism of maritime unions in Australia and the United States in what became the first and longest example of global solidarity in the post-World War II era – the anti-apartheid movement. Dockworkers, with a deep history of solidarity, occupied a strategic position to exert real influence on the South African state by refusing to unload South African cargo. We analyze the actions of the Waterside Workers’ Federation (WWF) in Australia and the International Longshore and Warehouse Union (ILWU) in the US, namely by exploring notions of solidarity and political unionism among marine transport workers, ideological motivations for solidarity activism, ethnic and race relations among workers, and labor connections these maritime unions made beyond the waterfront. We find and account for similarities and differences in Australian and US labor activism that often is underrepresented and incompletely explained in the literature.
Notes
* An earlier version was presented at the Australia – US Transnational and Comparative Labour History Conference, Sydney, 8–9 January 2015, and we thank the organizers, Greg Patmore and Shelton Stromquist.
1. Unlike the UK, in neither the US nor Australia was there a single united national organization like the Anti-Apartheid Movement (UK), although in Australia (in 1971 and after 1984) some groups used the term Australian Anti-Apartheid Movement.
2. See Wildt, “Solidarity” and Metz “Solidarity and History.”
3. Thörn, Anti-Apartheid, 1–13, 72; Sjölander, “History Distorted.”
4. Culverson, Contesting Apartheid; Jennett, “Signals to South Africa.”
5. Lambert , “Political Unionism” and Barchiesi, “Privatization”. We would also like to thank an anonymous referee for comments.
6. See Freeman, Boxall and Haynes. What Workers Say, but compare Markey, “The Australian Place.”
7. Fitzpatrick and Cahill, Seamen’s Union, Kirkby, Voices from the Ships, Beasley, Wharfies.
8. Minter and Hill, “Anti-Apartheid Solidarity” and Minter, Hovey, and Cobb, No Easy Victories.
9. Ahlquist and Levi, In the Interest of Others, 254–5, 258, 107, 173–4.
10. Wood, Dibben, and Klerck, “Limits of Transnational Solidarity.”
11. Denoon, Settler Capitalism.
12. Farrell, International Socialism, 85; Limb, Shared History, 16.
13. Hirson and Vivian, Strike across the Empire.
14. Lockwood, War on the Waterfront; Beasley, Wharfies, 104–6.
15. Lockwood, Ship to Shore, 346–7.
16. Goodall, “Uneasy Comrades.”
17. Lowenstein and Hill, Under the Hook, 8, 6, 172, 168; Moran, Reminiscences, 36; Griffiths, Wharfies, 9, 92; B. Griffiths, “Apartheid at Sea”, Seamen’s Journal September 1985; Maritime Workers Union Bulletin August 1985.
18. Wellman, The Union Makes us Strong, 102.
19. Martinez, “Questioning ‘White Australia.’”
20. CARE Newsletter no. 77 June, and no. 78 July 1986.
21. Maynard, “Vision, Voice and Influence.”
22. Chicka Dixon interviewed by Gary Foley, National Library of Australia (NLA) TRC 3282, 1995; Ahlquist and Levi, In the Interest of Others, 174; “Obituary: Vale ‘Chicka’ Dixon,” April 2010, www.kooriweb.org. There were a few other Aboriginal workers on Sydney waterfront, but only a handful, unlike the sizeable number of Maltese: conversation with WWF veteran Laurie Ditton, Sydney, 18 December 2015.
23. Limb, “Anti-Apartheid Movements in Australia.”
24. Australian Hansard May 8, 1963; Cabinet minute November 9, 1971: National Archives of Australia (NAA) A5909 52; Canberra Times August 20, 1968; cables August 122, 1968, “South African Atomic Energy” August 30, 1972, William McMahon to R. Swartz May 10, 1972, Cooperation in Nuclear Technology, January 14, 1971: NAA A1813 720/5/11.
25. Beasley, Wharfies, 249, Maritime Worker September 12, 1978.
26. Aarons, The Family File, 264–5 reveals state intelligence interest in CPA support for maritime anti-apartheid bans.
27. Beasley, “Soldiers of the Federation: The Women’s Committees of the Waterside Workers Federation of Australia” Labour History no. 81 2001, 109–27, 122 citing Maritime Worker April 28, 1965.
28. Luckhardt and Wall, Organize or Starve, 331, 373, 417, 435; Beasley, Wharfies, 235; Sydney Morning Herald March 24, 26 1960; ACTU circular April 28, 1960, Arthur Caldwell Papers Ms.4738, NLA 143/130.
29. Williams, Years of Big Jim, 75–6.
30. Cahill, “Lockwood”, 253.
31. Lockwood, “Partnership in Apartheid”; Cahill, “Lockwood,” 373.
32. Milner, Fighting Films, 10–5, 162; Matthew Larsen interview, Canberra, January 16, 2012.
33. John Gaetsewe (Sactu) to Norm Jeffery, January 11, 1964, Noel Butlin Archives ANU, Sheet Metal Workers Papers E206/5.
34. “Wharfmen Ban Arms Cargoes to South Africa,” Canberra Times November 20, 1963.
35. “Unions Bar Boycott on Apartheid,” Canberra Times September 26, 1964.
36. “Wharf stoppages,” July 16, 1964; “Wharfies Walk off Freighter,” July 22, 1964; “WWF Seeks Aid on S. Africa Ban,” September 3, 1964; “Watersiders Quit Twice” September 9, 1964: all Canberra Times.
37. “Apartheid Strikes,” October 21, 1964; “Wharf Union to Lose Power of Recruiting,” September 24, 1965; “Controversy on Strikes over Apartheid,” September 11, 1964 (Canberra Times); Sunday Tribune September 20, 1964 in “C” to WWF September 20, 1964, Butlin Archives, WWF Papers, N114/481 “South Africa 2 1963–1971.”
38. Ahlquist and Levi, In the Interest of Others, 107–8, 116; Fitzgibbon, circular 64/27, May 8, 1964, Mark Shope (Sactu) and E. Celeboun, ITUC Secretary to WWF April 20, 1966, Fitzgibbon to ITUC July 5, 1966, to ANC and ACTU July 1, 1968, Friends of Africa circular June 14, 1968: N114/481; Mayibuye no. 2 1968.
39. B. Gledhill, NUAUS to WWF January 19 1965, Fitzgibbon reply January 22, 1965: N114/481.
40. SADAF circular May 13, 1970, Peter McGregor circular received May 25, 1970: N114/481; Peter McGregor interview with Peter Limb, Perth 7 October 2005.
41. Fitzgibbon to John Vorster July 1, 1968, to John Gorton June 12, 1970, WWF cable October 7, 1970: N114/481.
42. Peter McGregor to WWF April 11, 1971.
43. Norm Docker, WWF Industrial Officer, Circular to branches and councillors 70/31, May 26, 1970: N114/481.
44. Harris, Political Football, 216; Canberra Times July 3 1971.
45. Norm Docker to the Premier, Brisbane July 16, 19, 1971, J. Healy, Job Delegate, July 16 1971 Resolution of Branch and Federal Executive WWF, June 25, 1971: N114/481.
46. Telegram WWF to TWU Perth June 25, 1971: N114/481; d’Alpuget, Hawke, 190.
47. Limb, Shared History; Canberra Times January 16, 1975; Luckhardt and Wall, Organize or Starve, 485.
48. Seamen’s Journal September-October 1977, 202–5; Beasley, Wharfies, 235.
49. Luckhardt and Wall, Organize or Starve, 486; email from K. Luckhardt, October 13 2014.
50. Bramble, Trade Unionism in Australia, 36, 52; Fitzpatrick and Cahill, Seamen’s Union, 304, 315; “Shipping Boycott,” Canberra Times, January 4, 1973; interviews with Meredith Burgmann, 2005, 2012.
51. Senate Hansard September 15, 1983; Cabinet Minute June 3, 1985, 6113, NAA 14039 2936; Eddie Funde, Paul Kaplan, Leslie Corbett interviews, October 2005; CARE Newsletter no. 41, 1982, no. 47, 1983, no. 86 1988, no. 81 1987.
52. “Shipping of Goods to Tanzania” 1985, ANC Australasian & Pacific Mission Archives (APM), University of Fort Hare Library, B15/F64; “Victims of Apartheid Material Aid Campaign,” flyer, 1987.
53. Cahill, “Internationalism”; Moran, Reminiscences, 50.
54. Southall, Imperialism or Solidarity?, 102; “Appeal for the Success of the International Week of Solidarity with the Victims of Apartheid” in WWF. “International: South Africa: Correspondence,” 1, 1970–1975: N114/931.
55. “US Workers against Apartheid.” Workers Unity no. 50/51 1985, 10; “Sactu Leader Visits New Zealand and Australia.” Workers Unity no. 59 1986, 4; “Maritime Unions Pledge to Stop Oil Flow.” Workers Unity no. 59 1986, 6–7.
56. Interviews with Kaplan, Gale, October 7, 2005; Beggs, Wharfie, 96.
57. Meeting with ten members of MUA Port Adelaide Veterans Association, Port Adelaide, October 26, 2005; E. Funde to Ron Barklay, SUA Port Adelaide secretary, May 29, 1986, APM 1/2.
58. E. Funde, “Report since Arrival,” “Report of Australasia Mission” September 1984 to Alfred Nzo Lusaka October 2 1984 in ANC Lusaka Papers, University of Fort Hare Library, B17 F.228; Funde interview, Johannesburg, October 16, 2005.
59. “Rally at Pier in Protest of South African Apartheid,” Associated Press, December 1, 1984.
60. Massie, Loosing the Bonds neglects US unions; so, too, do Minter and Hill, “Anti-Apartheid Solidarity.”
61. Larrowe, Harry Bridges; Cherny, “Making of a Labor Radical”; Moyers, “Harry Bridges,” 10.
62. Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront, chapter 1.
63. Korstad, Civil Rights Unionism; Schwartz, Solidarity Stories, 48.
64. Interview with C. Williams, June 22, 2011, Emeryville; Williams in Schwartz, Solidarity Stories; H. Mills, “The San Francisco Waterfront: The Extension of Community.” 1–6 (in possession of author); ILWU Dispatcher, September 29, 1967, 1, 8; King, “All Labor Has Dignity.”
65. Nesbitt, Sanctions, preface; Minter, Hovey, Cobb, No Easy Victories, 182–200; L. Robinson Interview, Raymond, CA, July 20, 2011; Cherny, “Longshoremen,” 102–40, 108–9, 138; “Judge Orders Halt to South African Boycott,” AP, December 4, 1984.
66. Cole and van der Walt, “Crossing the Color Lines”; J. Heyman interview, Oakland, CA, April 8, 2011; H. Keylor interview, San Francisco, CA March 16, 2011; H, Mills interviews, Berkeley, CA July 8, 2010 and June 15, 2011.
67. L. Wright Interview, Oakland, July 19, 2011 and phone interview, April 16, 2011.
68. Heyman, Keylor, Robinson, Wright, interview with E. Vrana, July 11, 2011, San Francisco; A. Brown biography: www.alba-valb.org/volunteers/archie-brown.
69. Longshore Worker Militant and Longshore-Warehouse Militant issues in “Local 10: Publications, Misc. ‘Militant’ Bulletins,” ILWU Library; conversations, emails and interviews with Heyman, Keylor, and Howard Keylor with his daughter Isis, Oakland, CA, August 12, 2014.
70. Mills, “Dockers Stop Arms”; Bailey, Kid from Hoboken; Larrowe, Harry Bridges, 326–35, 376–8.
71. ILWU Dispatcher October 5 1984; Mills, “Dockers Stop Arms”; Cole, “The Tip of the Spear”. The WWF quickly adopted ILWU tactics on containers: The Case for the Waterside Worker, 4, 23.
72. Dispatcher, April 22, 1960, 1 December 28, 1962, 3, April 21 1961, March 8 1963, February 25 2005; “Take Action against Apartheid …” Africa Today 9, October 1962: 16; Minter and Hill, ‘Anti-Apartheid Solidarity,’ 758, 766–7, who (775f) incorrectly suggest the Coalition of Black Trade Unionists (CBTU) first called for a boycott – but the ILWU preceded this by twelve years. CBTU, to which Robinson belonged, strongly fought apartheid.
73. Dispatcher, April 30, 1976, 2, June 25, 1976, 2 July 9, 1976, 1.
74. ‘Support the Boycott of White Supremacist Cargoes!’, ALSC New Hampshire-Vermont, August 30, 1976, Alan Zaslavsky Collection, Michigan State University; L. Wright, ‘Internationalism on the Waterfront,’ LSM News 14, 1977: 32.
75. Workers Vanguard October 22 1976, January 14, 28 1977; New York Times April 11, 1977; Robinson interview.
76. Sibeko, Freedom in Our Lifetime, 126–8; Dispatcher, February 11, 1977, October 21 1977; DVD of Robinson presentation, Local 10, San Francisco, September 20 2010 (in possession of author); interviews with Wright. Few exiles lived in SF but exiled artists sang freedom songs. Gideon Bendile in 1986 moved to the Bay and with Sechaba Mokoena, in Oakland, formed Zulu Spear. James Phillips, an ANC exile in London, visited for a month in 1986 to found a choir, Vukani Mawethu, to which one ILWU activist, Alex Bagwell of Local 34, and his wife belonged.
77. Wellman, The Union Makes Us Strong, 257; Vrana interview.
78. Wright and Robinson interviews.
79. Minter et al., No Easy Victories, 182–3; phone interviews with Wright; Heyman, Keylor, and Robinson interviews; email correspondence with Heyman and I. Keylor, 2014–2015.
80. Interviews with Alex Bagwell, San Francisco, CA, July 7, 2011; Heyman, Keylor, Robinson, Wright; email exchanges with B. Proctor, Jan. 2013; ILWU Yahoo Group January 18, 2013.
81. ILWU Dispatcher, December 11, 1984, 8; Bacon, “Work a Day for Freedom!”
82. Heyman interview; Robinson DVD; transcript of speech by Heyman, Dec 1, 1984 (in possession of author).
83. Interviews with Bagwell, Heyman, Keylor, Robinson, and Wright. In 1960, the ILWU and PMA signed the Mechanization and Modernization agreement, which included minimum hours and pay for members.
84. Dispatcher December 11 1984; “Minutes of Meeting of the Coast Labor Relations Committee,” November 27, 1984.
85. Bagwell, Heyman, Keylor, Robinson, Wright interviews; Robinson DVD; T. Lupher to J. Herman, November 14 1984, in “Boycott of South African Cargo, 1984, Correspondence from Public, ILWU Attorneys, Int’l Officers,” ILWU Library.
86. Bacon, “Work a Day for Freedom”; D. Bacon, “Leo Robinson: Soul of the Longshore,” inthesetimes.com; interviews and discussions with Keylor and Heyman.
87. Email from J. Heyman, ILWU Yahoo Group, December 8, 2013; “Boycott of South African Cargo, 1984, Correspondence from Public, ILWU Attorneys, Int’l Officers”; McCartin, Collision Course.
88. IEB, “Statement of Policy on Apartheid,” 1985, “Statement of Policy on South Africa,” 1986 in “ILWU History, Trade Union Relations, Foreign – Africa,” ILWU Library; Dispatcher, February 24, 1978, 1, 8, April 21, 1978, 4–5, and April 11, 1983, 3.
89. Bacon, “Work a Day for Freedom”; Minter, Hovey, and Cobb, No Easy Victories, 182–3.
90. Wright interview; Student Anti-Apartheid Newsletter Spring 1986: 1–2; T. Price, “Longshore Union Honors Struggle against Apartheid,” Dispatcher, February 25, 2005.
91. San Francisco Chronicle August 10, 1985, 12; Nesbitt, Sanctions, 163.
92. Nesbitt, Sanctions, 91, 134–72; Dellums, Lying Down, 121–40; Bacon, “Work a Day for Freedom.”
93. “Nelson Mandela in Oakland,” June 30, 1990, CV 004, Freedom Archives, San Francisco.
94. Beggs, Wharfie, 96; ‘Thousands Cheer Mandela!’ Maritime Worker November 1990; Kirkby, Voices from the Ships, 80.
95. Age, May 29, 1991; Pritchard, ‘Delegation Observed Historic ANC Conference,’ Seamen’s Journal September 1991, 217–20.
96. Viva: Anti-Racist Quarterly, 1:3 October 1991, 24.
97. Ahlquist and Levi, In the Interest of Others; Clayton, “‘A World Apart’”, 7.
98. Broeze, “Militancy and Pragmatism.”
99. Peter Cole “Death of Nelson Mandela recalls decades of ILWU support for anti-apartheid struggle,” Dispatcher December 2013, 3, 8.
100. Peter Cole, “Leo Robinson: Leader of the ILWU anti-apartheid struggle,” Dispatcher, January 2013; Bacon, “Leo Robinson”; COSATU Today Special Bulletin, December 8, 2013.
101. Bull in Milner, Fighting Films,11; Ditton interview; Ahlquist and Levi, In the Interest of Others, 107, 116.
102. Beasley, Wharfies, 226; Fredrickson, Black Liberation, 5.