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Abstract
The expansion of a steam-powered Royal Navy in the period 1870−1914 made vessels utterly dependent on coal. Getting this coal aboard warships was dirty, exhausting, and dangerous work. Even in 1914, it was still largely done by hand and, increasingly, it was the job of the ships’ crews to perform this task. Thus coaling was a regular task for sailors, usually occurring every 7–10 days, and one that could last all day. This article examines the different methods of coaling warships, particularly focusing on the use of sailor labour and colliers to reflect their increasing use as the period progressed. In addition to examining the roles of each of the ships’ crew in coaling, it also assesses sailors’ attitudes towards the task. In doing so, it shows that such a hated job required coping mechanisms, such as fancy dress, music, and competition, as well as the promise of alcohol and shore leave afterwards. Finally, the article examines the dangers of coaling, showing that a regular need for fuel frequently exposed sailors to serious danger, often suffering broken bones and, all too frequently, death.
Acknowledgements
This work owes a great deal to my PhD supervisors who read countless drafts of my work, and gave invaluable advice. I also owe thanks to Royal Holloway, the University of Warwick and the National Maritime Museum, with whom I was affiliated during this research. The research was supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council through its Collaborative Doctoral Awards programme.
Notes
1 Willock, Bulwark of Empire, 7; Lambert, Battleships in Transition, 53–5.
2 Wilson, ‘Fuelling the Steam Navy’, 14.
3 Andrew Lambert, ‘Economic Power’. The use of the navy to obtain compliance can be seen in Peru in 1857, and Chile in 1863. See Neilson and Errington, ‘Introduction’, 2; Lambert, ‘Under the Heel of Britannia’, 124.
4 Lambert, ‘Economic Power’.
5 Ibid.; Beeler, ‘Steam Strategy’, 27; The period up to 1879 has been covered in Wilson, ‘Fuelling the Steam Navy’. Several studies also exist on the shift from coal to oil. See, for instance Madureira, ‘Oil in the Age of Steam’; Brown, ‘The Royal Navy's Fuel Supplies 1898−1939’; Dahl, ‘Naval Innovation’; Gibson, ‘British Strategy and Oil’.
6 Wilson, ‘Fuelling the Steam Navy’, 16.
7 Lance, D. G., ‘Interview with James George Cox’, 1976, Imperial War Museum, 728.
8 Remarks on organization and coaling (1900) – Capt. E. E. Bradford’, National Maritime Museum, BRD/29. Hereafter, NMM, BRD/29.
9 Joseph E. King, ‘The Broad Arrow’, 188.
10 Wragg, Royal Navy Handbook, 173.
11 Butterworth, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Bedford’, 44; Parker, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Implacable’, 7.
12 Watts, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Retribution’, 17–19; Bonnici and Cassar, The Malta Grand Harbour, 360–3; Anning, Bentley, and Yexley, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Argonaut’, 76.
13 Wragg, Royal Navy Handbook, 15.
14 ‘Ships’, in Chisholm and Hooper (eds), Encyclopædia Britannica.
15 Brown, ‘When Dreams Confront Reality’.
16 NMM, BRD/29.
17 Brown, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Repulse’,126.
18 Hired steam colliers were also used in domestic naval stations. See David Evans, ‘Supporting the Steam Navy’, 187.
19 ‘Masker’, ‘The China Station in Other Days’, 522-533.
20 NMM, BRD/29; Lance, D. G., ‘Interview with Arthur Ernest Lilley’, 1976, Imperial War Museum, 750.
21 Brown, ‘When Dreams Confront Reality’.
22 R. Knight, Indians at Work, 13.
23 Furneaux, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Diana’, 50; Anning, Bentley, and Yexley, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Argonaut’,76.
24 Some stations, such as Yokohama, did not allow large warships beyond the breakwater of the harbour.
25 NMM, BRD/29.
26 Ibid.; ‘Portland coaling depot 1903’, The National Archives, Kew, ADM 1/7675. Hereafter TNA, ADM 1/7675.
27 Fowler, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Encounter’, 104.
28 Lance, D. G., ‘Interview with Arthur Ernest Lilley’, 1976, Imperial War Museum, 750.
29 Coaling rates of over 200 tons per hour were usually only achieved when coaling with the assistance of indigenous labour.
30 ‘A Coaling Station at Portsmouth’, The Times, 27 March, 1893.
31 Lance, D. G., ‘Interview with James Anthony Maloney’, 1975, Imperial War Museum, 663.
32 NMM, BRD/29.
33 Noble, ’Tween Decks in the Seventies, 188.
34 H. Breaks, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Bonaventure’, 83; Newton, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Grafton’, 204.
35 Whiteley and Davis, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Bulwark’, 123.
36 Dunslow and Jones, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Eclipse’, 106.
37 NMM, BRD/29.
38 Brown, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Repulse’,126.
39 Gibbs, The Cruise of H.M.S. ‘Grafton’, 84.
40 Furneaux, H., The Log of H.M.S. ‘Diana’, 71.
41 TNA, ADM 1/7675.
42 Maclean, Macdonald, and Yexley, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Caesar’, 9–15.
43 Whiteley and Davis, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Bulwark’, 3.
44 Maclean, Macdonald, and Yexley, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Caesar’, 9–15.
45 NMM BRD/29.
46 Wheeler, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Pandora’, 123–6.
47 McKee, Sober Men and True, 120–2; Maclean, Macdonald, and Yexley, The Log of H.M.S.‘Caesar’, 9–15.
48 Maclean, Macdonald, and Yexley, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Caesar’, 9–15.
49 McKee, Sober Men and True, 120–2.
50 Ibid.
51 David G. Lance, ‘Interview with James George Cox’, 1976.
52 Maclean, Macdonald, and Yexley, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Caesar’, 9–15.
53 McKee, Sober Men and True, 120–2.
54 Lance, ‘Interview with James George Cox’.
55 Wheeler, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Pandora’, 123–6.
56 Butterworth, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Glory’, 72.
57 Lance, D. G., ‘Interview with James George Cox’, 1976, Imperial War Museum, 728.
58 Lance, D. G., ‘Interview with Stanley Munday’, 1973, Imperial War Museum, 9048.
59 Fowler, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Encounter’, 12.
60 Gibbs, The Cruise of H.M.S. ‘Grafton’, 3. Lance, D. G., ‘Interview with James George Cox’,
61 Masker, ‘The China Station’, 522–33; McKee, Sober Men and True, 119–22.
62 Parker, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Implacable’, 97; McKee, Sober Men and True, 120.
63 Noble, ‘Tween Decks in the Seventies, 188.
64 Brown, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Repulse’, 38.
65 Fowler, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Encounter’, 77.
66 Parker, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Implacable’, 103.
67 Journal kept by Edward Charrington, 1894–8, Royal Naval Museum, Manuscript Collection, 1999/51/5; Gibbs, The Cruise of H.M.S. ‘Grafton’, 57.
68 McKee, Sober Men and True, 50.
69 Wragg, Royal Navy Handbook, 173; Wheeler, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Pandora’, 123–6; Brown, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Repulse’, 107.
70 McKee, Sober Men and True, 120–2.
71 Wheeler, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Pandora’, 123–6.
72 McKee, Sober Men and True, 120–2.
73 Maclean, Macdonald, and Yexley, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Caesar’, 9–15; McKee, Sober Men and True, 120–2.
74 McKee, Sober Men and True, 120–2.
75 Wheeler, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Pandora’, 123–6.
76 Maclean, Macdonald, and Yexley, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Caesar’, 9–15.
77 Whiteley and Davis, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Bulwark’, 15–16.
78 Wheeler, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Pandora’, 123–6.
79 Maclean, Macdonald, and Yexley, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Caesar’, 9–15.
80 Bonnici and Cassar, A Century of the Royal Navy at Malta, 26–32.
81 Butterworth, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Glory’, 130.
82 Moore, Commission and Travels of H.M.S. ‘Good Hope’, 41.
83 Wheeler, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Pandora’, 123–6; Callow, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Royal Arthur’, 11.
84 Breaks, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Bonaventure’, 3; Whiteley and Davis, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Bulwark’, 21–2.
85 Dunslow and Jones, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Eclipse’, 37; Maclean, Macdonald, and Yexley, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Caesar’, 9–15.
86 Watts, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Retribution’, 131
87 Lance, D. G., ‘Interview with Stanley Munday’, 1973, Imperial War Museum, 9048; Lance, D. G., ‘Interview with Arthur Ernest Lilley’, 1976, Imperial War Museum, 750.
88 Maclean, Macdonald, and Yexley, The Log of H.M.S. ‘Caesar’, 9–15.
89 Lance, D. G., ‘Interview with Arthur Ernest Lilley’, 1976, Imperial War Museum, 750.
90 Coaling Accidents (Navy), House of Commons Debate, 6 July 1909, Hansard, vol. 7 col. 1019; Coaling Accidents (Navy), House of Commons Debate, 15 January 1913, Hansard, vol. 46, cols 2046–7.
91 Ibid.
92 Navy (coaling accidents). Particulars of the more serious accidents which have occurred during the coaling of His Majesty's ships in the years 1910, 1911, and 1912, British Parliamentary Papers, 1912–13 [Cd. 6634].
93 Lance, D. G., ‘Interview with Arthur Ernest Lilley’, 1976, Imperial War Museum, 750.
94 Dunslow and Jones, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Eclipse’, 65.
95 Watts, The Commission of H.M.S. ‘Retribution’, 172.
96 St Clair, Three Years with the Mediterranean Fleet, 30.
Additional information
Dr Steven Gray is currently Lecturer in British and Imperial history, Swansea University. His main interests include British imperial, maritime, transnational, global and transoceanic history, particularly the material infrastructures of global networks, and how these facilitated the mobility of goods, people, militaries and empires.