‘Nevruz’ or ‘Newroz’? deconstructing the ‘invention’ of a contested tradition in contemporary Turkey

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Notes

This article was presented to the Association for the Study of Nationalities, Special Warsaw Convention, 18–21 July 2004. The author thanks Leila Alieva, the discussant of the panel at that convention, as well as Hootan Shambayati for his suggestions regarding content and Marc Chenault for his editorial corrections.

1. Since this article describes the attitudes of the Turkish elite, I choose to use the commonly and officially used spelling of Nevruz in Turkey.

2. For an explanation of Nevruz see Mary Boyce, ‘On the Calendar of Zororostrian Feasts', Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol.33, No.3 (1970), pp.513–39; E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, 1982 edn, s.v. ‘Nawruz’, p.888.

3. Milliyet, 21 March 1991.

4. Milliyet, 20 March 1994.

5. E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).

6. One of the reasons that the European Community put forward when rejecting Turkey's application to the European Community in 1987 was the ‘denial of existence of the Kurdish question’. Quoted in M.M. Gunter, The Kurds and the Future of Turkey (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997), pp.101–102. Today, among the medium term priorities of Turkey, the European Union still lists ‘ensuring cultural diversity and guarantee cultural rights for all citizens'. See ‘Enlargement Turkey’ accessed at http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/printversion/en/lvb/e4011g.htm accessed on 20 August 2004.

7. E. Hobsbawm, ‘Introduction: Inventing Traditions', in E. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition, p.12.

8. Islam Ansiklopedisi, 1964 ed., s.v. ‘Nevruz’, p.234; E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, 1982 ed., s.v. ‘Nawruz’, p.888.

9. See for example Cumhuriyet, 20 March 1930; Cumhuriyet, 22 March 1930; Cumhuriyet, 24 March 1931; Cumhuriyet, 22 March 1933; Cumhuriyet, 21 March 1936; Cumhuriyet, 21 March 1937; Cumhuriyet, 21 March 1940; Cumhuriyet, 22 March 1940; Cumhuriyet, 23 March 1940, Cumhuriyet, 22 March 1945: Cumhuriyet, 21 March 1946; Cumhuriyet, 18 March 1947, Akşam 21 March 1933, Akşam 20 March 1934.

10. Cumhuriyet, 21 March 1936; Cumhuriyet, 22 March 1937.

11. See for example, Cumhuriyet, 20 March 1980; Cumhuriyet, 18 March 1986; Cumhuriyet, 20 March 1986; Cumhuriyet, 24 March 1986; Cumhuriyet, 21 March 1987; Cumhuriyet, 22 March 1989; Hürriyet, 20 March 1989; M. van Bruinessen, ‘Between Guerrilla War and Political Murder: The Workers Party of Kurdistan’, Middle East Report, No.153 (Jul–Aug 1988), p.40; M.M. Gunter, The Kurds in Turkey: A Political Dilemma (Boulder, San Francisco, Oxford: Westview Press, 1990), p.67.

12. M. van Bruinessen, ‘Transnational Aspects of the Kurdish Question’, Working Paper prepared for Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, European University Institute, 2000 accessed at http//www.let.uu.nl/∼martin.vanbruinessen/personal/publications/transnational_Kurds.htm on 21 August 2004.

13. C. Dahlman, ‘Diaspora’, in J.S. Duncan et al. (eds.), A Companion to Cultural Geography (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2004), p.493.

14. van Bruinessen, ‘Transnational Aspects of the Kurdish Question’.

15. See for example, M. Liverani, ‘The Fall of the Assyrian Empire: Ancient and Modern Interpretations', in S.E. Alcock et al., (eds.), Empires: Perspective from Archaeology and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp.375–76 P. Robbins, ‘The Overlord State: Turkish Policy and the Kurdish Issue’, International Affairs, Vol.69, No.4 (Oct. 1993), p.667, f.44; Turkish Daily News, 21 March 1999.

16. Dünden Bugüne Istanbul Ansiklopedisi, 1994 ed., s.v. ‘Nevruz Adetleri’, p.69; Islam Ansiklopedisi, 1964 edn., s.v. ‘Nevruz’, p.234. Alevis and Bektashis celebrate Nevruz as the birthday of Ali as well as his marriage to Fatma. See also D. Zeidan, ‘The Alevi of Anatolia’, MERIA, Vol.3, No.4 (December 1999) accessed at www.cianoet.org/olj/meria99_zed02.html#txt54 on 21 August 2004.

17. See for example, Cumhuriyet, 20 March 1980; Cumhuriyet, 20 March 1986; Hürriyet, 20. March 1988; Hürriyet, 21 March 1989.

18. ‘Özal Puts up Brave Performance in Strasbourg– But Brussels Still Says No’, Briefing, Oct. 2, (1989), p.4 quoted in Gunter, The Kurds and the Future of Turkey. p.61.

19. FBIS–WEU, Dec 3, 1991, quoted in ibid., p.66.

20. Milliyet, 21 March 1991.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid.

23. Cumhuriyet, 21 March 1992; Hürriyet, 21 March 1992.

24. Milliyet, 22 March 1992.

25. Cumhuriyet, 22 March 1992. The death toll in 1992 celebrations was put somewhere between 70 and 92. While a Turkish Human Rights Foundations Report cited in The Turkish Daily News on 9 July 1992 said there were 92 people killed, in the subsequent years various newspaper reports stated that the death toll was 82, see for example Milliyet, 20 March 2000, and 70, respectively. See for example Turkish Probe (a supplement to the The Turkish Daily News), 21 March 1997.

26. Milliyet, 21 March 1996.

27. Milliyet, 21 March 1996.

28. Sabah, 21 March 1997.

29. As spelt by BBC Monitoring.

30. ‘Turkish Leaders Call for “Friendship and Fraternity” for Kurdish New Year’, BBC Monitoring, 21 March 2000.

31. Sabah, 21 March 1997.

32. Sabah, 22 March 1997.

33. As spelt by BBC Monitoring.

34. As spelt by BBC Monitoring.

35. ‘Turkish Leaders Call for “Friendship and Fraternity” for Kurdish New Year’, BBC Monitoring, 21 March 2000.

36. ‘Ecevit, Bahçeli, Yılmaz, Talay Issue Nevruz Messages', FBIS-WEU-2001-0321, 20 March 2001.

37. ‘MHP's Bahçeli on “Degeneration” of Nevruz Holiday by “Separatists”‘, FBIS-WEU-2002-0320, 20 March 2002.

38. Radikal, 21 March 2004. Sezer's 2001 Nevruz message is almost identical. See Sabah, 20 March 2001.

39. Milliyet, 21 March 1996. See the statements of Ahmet Kayhan and Kemal Yazıcıoğlu; Hürriyet, 22 March 1992, see the statements of Lutfullah Kayalar. Ayvaz Gökdemir in Türk Dünyasında Nevruz: İkinci Bilgi Şöleni Bildirileri (Ankara 19–21 Mart 1996), p.3; A. Çay, ‘Ergenekon Bayramı ve Kava Gerçeği’, Ülkü Ocağı, June–July 1997, p.13

40. A. Çay, Türk Ergenekon Bayramı Nevruz (Ankara: Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü, 1988), p.14–15. This book was reprinted throughout the 1990s several times.

41. ‘Ecevit, Bahçeli, Yılmaz, Talay, Issue Nevruz Messages', FBIS-WEU-2001-0320, 20 March 2001.

42. Ibid.

43. Milliyet, 20 March 2000; G. Göktürk, ‘“W” Krizi’, Zaman, 20 March 2000. Several members of the Motherland Party (ANAP) criticized this on the grounds that ‘one should consider it natural to find posters written in Kurdish in a country where the citizens speak Kurdish’. ‘Turkish Ruling Party Official Criticize Banning of Newroz Posters in Kurdish’, BBC Monitoring, 22 March 2000. The letters ‘x’, ‘w’, ‘q’ that are part of the Kurdish alphabet but that do not exist in the Turkish alphabet continued to be a problem as late as November 2003. Two people who wanted to change their Turkish first names with the Kurdish ones were given the initial approval, but later the issue was taken to the court when the Turkish Language Institution and Hakkari Registration Office objected the issue on the grounds that these new Kurdish names contained letters that did not exist in the Turkish alphabet. Milliyet, 25 Nov. 2003.

44. The Ergenekon Epic is about the resurgence of the Turks after being defeated by the Chinese. According to this epic, those who survived this defeat follow a wolf. This wolf takes the survivors to a valley called Ergenekon surrounded and protected by the mountains. After living in Ergenekon for 400 years, the descendants of the survivors decide to leave Ergenekon, but cannot find an exit. With the help of an ironmonger they melt a part of the mountain that is made of iron and leave Ergenekon. Because of this iron mongering is seen as the traditional profession of the Turks. To see the various names under which Nevruz is celebrated at www.Nevruz.gen.tr/isimler.htm accessed on 10 July 2004.

45. Milliyet, 20 March 1994.

46. Milliyet, 22 March 1993.

47. As spelt by BBC Monitoring.

48. ‘Turkish Leaders Call for “Friendship and Fraternity” for Kurdish New Year’, BBC Monitoring, 21 March 2000.

49. R. Genç in Türk Dünyasında Nevruz: ikinci Bilgi Şöleni Bildirileri (Ankara 19–21 Mart 1996) (Ankara: Atatürk Kültür Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu, Atatürk Kültür Merkezi Yayını, 1996), pp.9–10.

50. A. Gökdemir in Türk Dünyasında Nevruz: ikinci Bilgi Şöleni Bildirileri, p.4; Avrasya Dosyası, April 1996; R. Yüzbaşıoğlu, Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Tutanakları, 21 March 1995, Session: 88/1, accessed at http://www.tbmm.gov.tr on April 21, 2001, A.O. Güner, Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Tutanakları, 21 March 2001, Session: 72 /1, accessed via internet at http://www.tbmm.gov.tr on April 21, 2001; ‘Nevruz in Turkish Culture’, Turkish Review Quarterly Digest, Vol.6, No.30 (Winter 1992), pp.51–52.

51. Cumhuriyet, 22 March 1987.

52. Çay, Türk Ergenekon Bayramı Nevruz, p.14–15.

53. Çay, ‘Ergenekon Bayramı ve Kava Gerçeği’, Ülkü Ocağı, June–July 1997, p.13.

54. ‘Yurttan–Dünyadan’,Ülkü Ocağı, April 1996, p.3

55. Milliyet, 21 March 1996; Milliyet, 21 March 2004.

56. Milliyet, 22 March 1996

57. Sabah, 20 Mart 1997; Sabah, 21 March 1998; ‘Turkish Religious Official Issues New Year Message’, BBC Monitoring, 20 March 2000; ‘Turkish Religious Official Warns Against “Political” Use of Kurdish New Year’, BBC Monitoring, 20 March 2002.

58. ‘Turkish Religious Official Warns Against ‘Political’ Use of Kurdish New Year’, BBC Monitoring, 20 March 2002.

59. ‘Security Directorate Booklet Says Nevruz Turkish Holiday’, FBIS-WEU-2000-1319, 19 March 2000; ‘Turkey: Security Body Says Kurdish New Year Ancient Turkish Holiday’, BBC Monitoring, 19 March 2000.

60. ‘Ecevit, Bahçeli, Yılmaz, Talay, Issue Nevruz Messages', FBIS-WEU-2001-0320, 20 March 2001.

61. Milliyet, 22 March 1996.

62. Avrasya Dosyası, Feb. 1996. Emphasis is mine.

63. Avrasya Dosyası, March 2001. Emphasis is mine.

64. G. Civaoğlu, ‘Nevruz’, Milliyet, 21 March 1996, p.17; Y. Doğan, ‘Nevruz…Sağlar'ın “Bayram” Genelgesi’, Milliyet, 22 March 1994, p.15; N. Mete, ‘Nevruz Kimin Bayramı’, Milliyet, 22 March 1995, p.4; E. Çölaşan, ‘Nevruz Bayramı’, Hürriyet, 22 March 1991, p.22.

65. Sabah, 21 March 1997.

66. See for example, A. Gökdemir in Türk Dünyasında Nevruz: ikinci Bilgi Şöleni Bildirileri (Ankara 19–21 Mart 1996), p.4; İsmail Kahraman in Sabah, 21 March 1997.

67. Milliyet, 22 March 1994.

68. Sabah, 20 March 1997.

69. ‘Kurdish Official Hails State's Permission for Nevruz Celebrations', BBC Monitoring, 21 March 2000.

70. ‘Jailed Turkish Rebel Kurd Leader Says Prepared to Die for Cause’, BBC Monitoring, 21 March 2004.

71. ‘HADEP Thanks Authorities for Nevruz Celebrations', FBIS-WEU-2000-0323, 23 March 2000; ‘Kurdish Party Leader Gives Thanks New Year Events', BBC Monitoring, 19 March 2002.

72. ‘HADEP Allowed to Mark Nevruz in Diyarbakir, Batman’, FBIS-WEU-0320, 20 March 2000; ‘Kurdish Groups Celebrate New Year in Turkey’, BBC Monitoring, 21 March 2004.

73. Milliyet, 22 March 1995; Sabah, 21 March 1997; Sabah, 22 March 2000; Milliyet, 21 March 2000.

74. Sabah, 22 March 1997; Hürriyet, 21 March 2004: Milliyet, 21 March 2004.

75. ‘Kurds Allowed to Celebrate New Year in Some Cities of Southeastern Turkey’, BBC Monitoring, 20 March 2000. The Malatya governorship stated that it ‘would not allow celebrations upon the probability that propaganda of the terrorist organizations would be made’; ‘Turkey: Rebel Group Reported Preparing for “Action” on Kurdish New Year’, BBC Monitoring, 17 March 2003.

76. Milliyet, 20 March 2000; Sabah, 21 March 1997; ‘Turkey: “Tight Security Measures” Introduced for Kurdish New Year’, BBC Monitoring, 19 March 2000; ‘Kurds Allowed to Celebrate New Year in Some Cities of Southeastern Turkey’, BBC Monitoring, 20 March 2000; ‘Tires Set on Fire in Southeastern Turkey to Mark Kurdish New Year’, BBC Monitoring, 20 March 2000.

77. Sabah, 21 March 1999; Milliyet, 21 March 2000.

78. Sabah, 20 March 1997.

79. Sabah, 20 March 1999.

80. Radikal, 21 March 2004; Hürriyet, 21 March 2004; Milliyet, 21 March 2004.

81. Milliyet, 21 March 2004.

82. Radikal, 21 March 2004.

83. Sabah, 22 March 1997.

84. Sabah, 21 March 1999; Sabah, 22 March 1999; Hürriyet, 21 March 2004; ‘Almost 150 Detained in Istanbul Nevruz Celebrations', BBC Monitoring, 21 March 2000.

85. ‘Police Open Fire on Demonstrators in Istanbul’, BBC Monitoring, 21 March 1999; ‘Turkey: 200 People Detained in Konya, Diyarbakır During Festival Incidents', BBC Monitoring, 21 March 2004.

86. ‘Few Incidents Reported as Kurds in Turkey Celebrate New Year’, BBC Monitoring, 21 March 2004; Radikal, 21 March 2004; Sabah, 22 March 2000; Sabah, 22 March 1999; Sabah, 22 March 1997; Milliyet, 22 March 1995; ‘Turkey: Twelve Arrested for Engaging in “Terrorist” Propaganda During Nevruz’, BBC Monitoring, 23 March 2002. In the 1990s, number of times semi-official Anatolia News Agency reported that there were foreigners among the crowds chanting pro-Kurdish slogans. See for example, ‘Turkey Deports Italian Charged with ‘Provoking Hatred’ in Nevruz Protests', BBC Monitoring, 4 Apr. 2000; ‘Turkish Police Arrest Italian, Expel 43 Foreigners from Diyarbakır’, BBC Monitoring, 24 March 1998.

87. Hürriyet, 21 March 2004.

88. Milliyet, 21 March 1996; Milliyet, 22 March 1994.

89. Sabah, 20 Mart 1997.

90. Sabah, 21 March 1998.

91. Ibid.

92. ‘AA Reports Nevruz Festivities, Demir Statement’, FBIS-WEU-2000-0321, 21 March 2000; ‘Turkish Culture Ministry Planning Nevruz Celebrations', FBIS-WEU-2000-0315, 15 March 2000.

93. See for example, Uluslararasi Nevruz Sempozyumu Bildirileri: 21–23 Mart 2000, Ankara. (Ankara: T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı, 2000; Nevruz / Yenigün (21 Mart) Ankara : T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı, 1999; Fotograflarla Halk Kültürü ve Nevruz Ankara : T.C. Kütür Bakanlığı 2000.; Elmas Kılıç (ed.) Türk Dünyasında Nevruz Üçüncü Uluslararası Bilgi Şöleni Bildirileri, 18–20 Mart 1999, Elazığ (Ankara : Atatürk Kültür Merkezi Baskanlığı, 2000); ebnem Ercebeci (ed.) Türk Dünyasında Nevruz Dördüncü Uluslararası Bilgi Şöleni Bildirileri, 21–23 Mart 2001, Sivas (Ankara : Atatürk Kültür Merkezi Baskanlığı, 2001); Sadık Tural, Türk Kültüründe Nevruz Uluslararası Bilgi Şöleni (Sempozyumu) Bildirileri (Ankara: Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu, 1995); Sadık Tural, Türk Dünyasında Nevruz ikinci Bilgi Şöleni Bildirileri (Ankara, 19–21 Mart) (Ankara: Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu, 1996).

94. Anayurttan Atayurda, Türk Dünyası Dergisi, No.17, 1999.

95. There were many instances of these. See for example, ‘AA Reports Nevruz Festivities, Demir Statement’, FBIS-WEU-2000-0321, 21 March 2000; Sabah, 20 March 1999. The works of the winners of these competitions organised by the Ministry of Culture can be viewed at its website.

96. Milliyet, 21 March 2004.

97. Radikal, 21 March 2004.

98. See for example, Milliyet, 20 March 1994; Milliyet, 22 March 1995; Milliyet, 21 March 1996; Sabah, 21 March 1998; Milliyet, 22 March 2001.

99. Milliyet, 22 March 1993.

100. Sabah, 21 March 1998.

101. Milliyet, 22 March 1995.

102. ‘Turkish Deputy Prime Minister Bahçeli Leaves for Kazakhstan’ FBIS-WEU-2002-0318, 18 March 2002.

103. E. Hobsbawm, ‘Mass Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870–1914’, in The Invention of Tradition, p.263.

104. D. Cannadine, ‘The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the Invention of Tradition’, in ibid., pp.101–164.

105. D.D. Laitin, Hegemony and Culture: Politics and Religious Change Among the Yoruba (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1986), p.15.