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Notes
1. The works of Indian Muslims as different in their political outlook as Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Maulana Mohamed Ali, Mushir Hosain Kidwai, Syed Ameer Ali, Muhammad Inshaullah, Shibli Nu‘mani, Sir Muhammad Iqbal and many others are replete with references to the Ottomans and their impact upon Indian Muslim political fortunes. Reference may also be made to the following articles by S.T. Wasti in Middle Eastern Studies: ‘Two Muslim Travelogues’, Vol.27, No.3 (July 1991), pp.457–76; ‘Mushir Hosain Kidwai and the Ottoman Cause’, Vol.30, No.2 (April 1994), pp.252–61; ‘Muhammad Inshaullah and the Hijaz Railway’, Vol.34, No.2 (April 1998), pp.60–72; and ‘The Circles of Maulana Mohamed Ali’, Vol.38, No.4 (Oct. 2002), pp.51–62.
2. The best known sentences of Macaulay's famous Minute on Indian Education of 2 February 1835 faithfully encapsulate the ‘spirit of the age’– in which the ‘benighted natives’ had to be ‘spoken for’ by ‘effortlessly superior’ grandees in a parliament many thousands of miles away:
I have no knowledge of either Sanscrit or Arabic. But I have done what I could to form a correctestimate of their value. I have read translations of the most celebrated Arabic and Sanscrit works. I have conversed, both here and at home, with men distinguished by their proficiency in the Eastern tongues. I am quite ready to take the oriental learning at the valuation of the orientalists themselves. I have never found one among them who could deny that a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia. | |||||
3. Shah Abdul Aziz (1746–1824; some sources give 1823) was the eldest son of Shah Waliullah (1703–62), a religious scholar, writer, teacher and reformer of great stature who came from a family of learned men. Shah Waliullah arranged for the translation of the Qur’an into Persian in 1737. A brother of Shah Abdul Aziz later translated the Qur’an into Urdu. Shah Abdul Aziz was also a writer and erudite scholar who served the cause of Islam during the years of the decline of the Moghul Empire.
4. A fatwa is a religious decree issued (in answer to a question) by a competent religious scholar or authority.
5. The House of Islam, i.e. an area or state where the law and practice of Islam may be followed totally unhindered.
The importance of Shah Abdul Aziz's fatwa lies in the following:
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6. Also known as the First War of Indian Independence or the Revolt of 1857.
7. For a perspicacious account of how political revolt was couched in the time-honoured poetical metres of Urdu, see G. Minault, The Khilafat Movement: Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp.154–63. Along with many other journalistic publications, the role of the Comrade, a journal in English edited by Maulana Mohamed Ali between 1911 and 1914, and the Zamindar (Landlord), a paper [weekly or daily as funds permitted] in Urdu edited by Maulana Zafar Ali Khan as of 1903 in shaping the political climate of the time was of great importance.
8. Founded in 1875 by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan as the Anglo-Muhammadan Oriental College, Aligarh Muslim University was the first residential educational institution in India. Sir Syed's aim was to combine the highest traditions of British education with Islamic values. The College became a full-fledged university in 1920.
9. This was indeed motivated by pan-Islamic considerations in spite of the fact that the Ottomans themselves had to fight on many fronts. However, the Ottomans under Enver Pasha were not just disinterested spectators; they had their own Drang nach Osten with incursions into Iran and Azerbaijan. By contrast, the possibility of armed assistance from Afghanistan was somewhat remote.
10. The foundation stone of the Dar ul Uloom (House of Knowledge) was laid on 30 May 1866. This religious school located about 90 miles north of Delhi has produced many learned men such as Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, Mufti Mohammad Shafi and Zulfiqar Ali Deobandi. A detailed and sympathetic account of the early history of Deoband is given in B.D. Metcalf, Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982). Further information about the institution and its history is available at the web-site, http://www.darululoom-deoband.com/
11. In 1695, the Moghul Emperor Aurangzeb (reigned 1658–1707) transferred the confiscated property of a wealthy French trader, which consisted of a complex of four buildings called Firangi Mahal (Palace of the Foreigner), to Mullah Nizam Ud Din Sehalvi, who founded – in these buildings which still survive in Lucknow – the famous Sunni theological school also called Firangi Mahal.
12. The Anjuman-i Islam (Society of Islam) was formed for the educational and social uplift of the Muslims, and did pioneer work in the establishment of schools, especially for Muslim girls. In 1900 the Anjuman also collected funds to be sent to Turkey for the completion of the Hijaz Railway.
13. The Anjuman-i Khuddam-i Ka‘ba (Society of the Servants of the Ka‘ba) was founded by Maulana Muhammad Abdul Bari (1878–1926), a noted religious scholar and activist of Firangi Mahal, along with Mushir Hosain Kidwai and Maulana Shaukat Ali. The Society was a precursor of the Khilafat Movement.
14. See J.M. Landau, The Politics of Pan-Islam: Ideology and Organization (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), pp.182–203.
15. The British acquisition of control in Egypt, which had been under Ottoman suzerainty since 1517, took place only five years after the proclamation of Victoria as the Queen-Empress of India. Similarly, the administrative control of Cyprus by Britain occurred in 1878. Memories of people living at the start of the twentieth century needed no jogging when it came to the question of British empire-building.
16. For more details, see Wasti, ‘The Circles of Maulana Mohamed Ali’.
17. Mujahideen is the plural of mujahid, which means someone engaged in jihad, or fighting for a just cause.
18. The title of Shaikh ul Hind (Muslim Religious Leader of India) was given to Mahmud ul Hasan by Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress, see http://www.jamiahjambusar.com/madrassapage9.htm
19. Maulana is a title of respect with religious connotations given to a man of learning.
20. Mahmud ul Hasan (1850–1921) was born in Bareilly and while receiving his religious education became the first ever pupil in Darul Uloom, Deoband which was founded in 1866. After finishing his religious studies he received the ‘turban of proficiency’ in 1873 at the hands of Muhammad Qasim Nanotawi who, along with Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, was one of the founders of the Deoband religious school. In 1874, he was appointed as the fourth teacher, reaching promotion to the post of the principal in 1890. After his return to India in June 1920, he joined the Khilafat movement and died after a short illness in 1921.
21. This is how he signed his name in English. Versions of the name include Ubeydullah, Ubaydallah, Ubaidullah and Obeydullah.
22. Obeidullah Sindhi (1872–1944) was born in the Chianwali village of the district of Sialkot in the Punjab into a family of Hindus and Sikhs. He embraced Islam at an early age, left home and spent several years in religious seminaries starting with Bharchundi in the district of Sukkur in Sindh, whence the inclusion of Sindhi in his name. He spent the period 1915–38 outside India, in Afghanistan, Russia, Turkey and the Hijaz.
23. These areas are known collectively as Yaghistan, the rebellious or ungovernable lands. Yaghistan, now called Kohistan (Land of the Mountains) is in the Northern Areas of Pakistan.
24. One of the adventurous spirits who fled to Yaghistan and Afghanistan in 1911 in the hope of liberating India was Moulvi Mohammad Ali Kasuri, MA (Cantab), a senior wrangler in mathematics.
25. P.C. Bamford, Histories of the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movements (Delhi: KK Book Distributors, 1985), pp.115–6. The title page of the book states that Bamford was Deputy Director, Intelligence Bureau, Home Department, Government of India. The book was originally published in 1925. Bamford states (p.121): ‘In the middle of 1915, information was received of Turco-German schemes to incite Indian Muhammadans against the British Government, in order to cause trouble in India and thus embarrass England in the War. The notorious Egyptian pan-Islamist, Abdul Aziz Shahwesh, was specially appointed by the Committee of Union and Progress to put into execution these anti-British schemes’.
26. Raja Mahendra Pratap (1886–1979) was born into an aristocratic Hindu family and studied at Aligarh Muslim University. At the age of 28, he left India for Europe to try to liberate India from the clutches of the British colonial rule with outside support. Due to his revolutionary ideas he developed good relations with Lenin and visited Russia several times. The British authorities in India put a reward on his head, confiscated his estate and declared him a fugitive. Raja Mahendra Pratap continued his work for Indian freedom. During the Second World War he stayed in Japan. In 1946, as the British were preparing to quit India he was allowed to return to his motherland after 32 years of self-imposed exile. He became a member of the Indian Parliament between 1957 and 1962, continued his social work and writing, and died in 1979.
27. Maulvi Mohammad Barakatullah Bhopali (1854–1927) was born in Bhopal, as indicated by his surname, and was educated in Bombay and London. Barakatullah went to several countries with a mission to politically activate the Indian community and to seek the support of the famous leaders of the time for the freedom of India. He provided a link between the pan-Islamic movement and the struggle for Indian freedom, and was a friend of Raja Mahendra Pratap as well as Lala Har Dayal. Barakatullah was one of those who formed the Ghadar (Rebellion) Party in San Francisco. Barakatullah eventually became a Professor of Urdu at Tokyo University and a master of seven languages (English, Urdu, Arabic, Persian, Turkish, German and Japanese). The Japanese were of assistance in his efforts against the British. Barakatullah was an energetic pamphleteer, and received funds for his publications from several sources, including Ottoman Turkey and Afghanistan. His publications used to be smuggled into British India in large numbers. He died in 1927 in Marysville, California, where he is buried. In the preface to his monumental work on Ottoman poetry, Gibb offers sincere thanks ‘especially to my friends Cherkesh-Sheykhi-zade Khalil Khalid Efendi and Professor Muhammed Barakatullah, the latter of whom has with the utmost kindness placed at my disposal the stores of his great erudition’. See E.J.W. Gibb, A History of Ottoman Poetry, Vol.I (Cambridge: E.J.W. Gibb Memorial Trust, 1984), p.xi.
28. Zafar Hasan (1895–1989), who took the surname Aybek in 1934, was born in Karnal, District Panipat, East Punjab. While studying at Government College, Lahore, he joined a large group of young university students who escaped from India to Afghanistan with the intention of fighting for Turkey in response to the call for jihad issued by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed Reshad in 1914 at the start of the First World War. He joined Maulana Obeidullah Sindhi in Afghanistan, followed him to Russia, finally arriving in Turkey with the Maulana in 1924. He stayed on in Turkey after the Maulana left for the Hijaz in 1926. In spite of having exceeded the age limit, he was given the opportunity of joining the Turkish Armed Forces on the recommendation of Fahreddin Pasha, defender of Medina, who had known him in Afghanistan. He retired as Artillery Captain in 1946.
29. Z.H. Aybek, Khatiraat: Aap Beeti [Memoirs: Story of Events that Befell], ed. Dr Ghulam Hussain Zulfiqar (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1990).
30. According to the memoirs of Zafer Hasan Aybek, the Tsar later showed the letter to British representatives in Moscow with much pride and used it as a bargaining chip in discussions with Britain. See ibid., p.104.
31. For details, refer to S.T. Wasti, ‘The 1877 Ottoman Mission to Afghanistan’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.30, No.4 (Oct. 1994), pp.956–62.
32. Teşkilâtı Mahsûsa literally translates as Special Organization but, as mentioned in the text, is rendered as Special Force. Members of the Special Force served in groups with various names during the Turkish War of Independence. After the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the intelligence organization took the name Mill İstihbarat Teşkilatı (National Intelligence Organization).
33. Hüsameddin Ertürk (1871–?) retired as a Colonel in the Turkish cavalry. He was the third head of the Special Force, the first being Süleyman Askeri, who was succeeded by Ali Bey Başhempa (a modification of his name Ali Baş Hamba). Ali and his brother Muhammad were pan-Islamic Tunisians. Askeri (1883–1915) was an Ottoman military officer with the rank of Major.
34. H. Ertürk, İki Devrin Perde Arkası [Lifting the Curtain on Two Periods]– Memoirs as narrated to Samih Nafiz Tansu (Istanbul: Pınar Yayınevı, 1964), p.1.
35. M. Yamauchi, The Green Crescent under the Red Star (Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, 1991).
36. V. Keleşyılmaz, Teşkilâtı Mahsûsa’nın Hindistan Misyonu (1914–1918) [The Indian Mission of the Special Force (1914–1918)] (Ankara: AKDTYK Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi, 1999).
37. M.K. Öke, Güney Asya Müslümanları’nın İstiklâl Davası ve Türk Milli Mücadelesi [The Independence Movement of the Muslims of South Asia and the Turkish National Struggle] (Ankara: Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, 1988).
38. Lala Har Dayal (1884–1939) was a writer, speaker, polymath and revolutionary in the struggle for Indian independence. He took degrees in English Literature and History from Lahore, and was awarded a scholarship to study further at Oxford. However, he plunged into revolutionary associations working for Indian freedom, resigned his scholarship and returned to carry on political work at Lahore. Later, he left India for London in 1908, shifted to Paris in 1909 and then went over to the United States where he helped to rejuvenate the Ghadar (Rebellion) Party, becoming General Secretary in 1913. The aim of the Ghadar Party was to overthrow British rule in India by force. The official name of the party was ‘The Hindi Association of the Pacific Coast’ and it ran the weekly Ghadar in several languages. However, attempts by the party to foment revolts in India were not successful and it collapsed within a few years. When the British Government asked the US Government to arrest him in 1914, Har Dayal moved to Germany and with the outbreak of the First World War sought German support for the liberation of India. He left Germany in October 1918 for Stockholm where he earned his livelihood by teaching. He stayed in Sweden until October 1927, when the British Government granted amnesty to all political refugees. In 1931 he completed a Ph.D. from London University with a thesis on the Bodhisatva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature. Har Dayal went on a lecture tour to the United States in September, 1938 but died in Philadelphia on 4 March 1939.
39. Reference 70 to the introductory chapter of Öke's book mentions an interview conducted by him with Zafer Hasan Aybek.
40. Hüseyin Rauf Orbay (1881–1964) was a naval hero who was also one of the core members of the Teşkilâtı Mahsusa. After the establishment of the Republic he served as Prime Minister and later Ambassador to the United Kingdom.
41. R. Orbay, Siyasî Hatıralar [Political Memoirs] (Istanbul: Örgün Yayınevi, 2003), pp.38 et seq.
42. Bamford, Histories of the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movements, pp.115–6. Some credit is certainly due to British Indian Intelligence for efficiently keeping tabs on all foreign visitors to India.
43. Not much can be traced about Dr Kemal Ömer, but Adnan was none other than Dr Adnan Adıvar (1882–1955), a medical doctor and author who, in 1917, married the writer and novelist Halide Edip. He served in both the Ottoman and Republican Turkish Parliaments.
44. S.M. Tevfik was a prolific journalist who wrote on many Islamic subjects. His dates of birth and death have not been traced. He was a friend of many important Indian Muslims and served as the special Indian correspondent for the journal Sebîlürreşad (The Straight Path) wherein he has more than 150 articles during the years 1912–15. See A. Ceyhan (ed.), Sıratı Müstakîm ve Sebîlürreşad Mecmuaları Fihristi [List of Articles Published in the Journals Sıratı Müstakîm (Straight Path) and Sebîlürreşad (Right Way)] (Ankara: Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı Yayınları, 1991).
45. This was very likely Halil Halid for whom reference may be made to S.T. Wasti, ‘Halil Halid: Anti-Imperialist Muslim Intellectual’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.29, No.3 (July 1993), pp.559–79.
46. Maulana Shaukat Ali (1876–1938) was the elder brother of Maulana Mohamed Ali (1878–1931). Both brothers were active in the cause of Indian freedom and also organized the Khilafat Movement. Also refer to Wasti, ‘The Circles of Maulana Mohamed Ali’.
47. Hacı Sami Kuşçubaşı (?–1927), was the brother of Eşref Sencer (see Orbay, Siyasî Hatıralar) and also a member of the Teşkilâtı Mahsûsa. Both brothers took their surname from their father who was Chief Bird-Keeper to Sultan Abdülhamid II. Hacı Sami's life parallels that of his brother, both taking their place among the ‘150 undesirables’ exiled from Turkey in 1924. He served the country on many fronts, and was joined by Enver Pasha from Omsk when the latter went to Moscow in 1920. After Enver Pasha's death he fought the Red Army unsuccessfully and had to escape to Afghanistan in 1923. He was killed in an ambush in Kuşadası in Turkey in 1927.
48. This newspaper/journal was published three times a month in Istanbul in Arabic, Turkish, Persian and Urdu. Although the publisher was the Cemiyeti Hayriye-yi İslâmiye (The Islamic Benevolent Association), the licence holder was Abu Saeed Al-Arabi, an Indian Muslim, and the Editor was Yusuf Şetvan, an Ottoman deputy from Binghazi, Libya who was associated with the Teşkilâtı Mahsûsa.
49. A. Özcan, Panislamizm: Osmanlı Devleti, Hindistan ve İngiltere (1877–1914) [Pan-Islamism: The Ottoman State, India and England (1877–1914)] (Istanbul: TDV İslam Araştırmaları Merkezi, 1992), pp.241–4.
50. Eşref Sencer Kuşçubaşı (1873–1964) was one of the inner circle members of the Teşkilâtı Mahsûsa, and was in charge of the Middle East and North Africa. He graduated from military schools and academies, but was an energetic and rebellious man, getting into frequent trouble with the authorities; he was even sentenced to death on one occasion but later reprieved. He travelled incognito in Afghanistan, India, Iran, Central Asia and the Hijaz. When Italy invaded the Ottoman province of Libya in 1911, Enver Pasha asked Eşref to help organize guerrilla resistance to the Italians. Eşref participated in the relief of Edirne and was also responsible for the establishment of the short-lived Western Thrace Turkish Republic in 1913. He conducted several operations in Syria and the Yemen during the First World War. Eşref was wounded in the Yemen operation and captured by the Arab forces who turned him over to the British and he then spent three years imprisoned in Malta. He also took part in the Turkish War of Independence on several fronts but, once agin, he fell out with others and had to leave Turkey as one of the ‘150 undesirables’ exiled in 1924. He returned under an amnesty many years later and died on his farm near Izmir.
51. Landau, The Politics of Pan-Islam.
52. Minault, The Khilafat Movement, pp.30–32. It might be pointed out, however, that the question posed by the mathematician Edward Lorenz, i.e. ‘Does the Flap of a Butterfly's Wings in Brazil Set Off a Tornado in Texas?’, is not totally irrelevant in politics either.
53. A. Ahmad, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan, 1857–1964 (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), pp.133–4.
54. Maulana Syed Hussain Ahmed Madani (1879–1957), received his education in Deoband. He went to Mecca along with his father in 1909 for further studies. Together with the Shaikh ul Hind Maulana Mahmud ul Hasan, he was turned over to the British by Sherif Hüseyin and imprisoned in Malta for over three years. He returned to India after his release in 1920. Maulana Madani became Principal of the Deoband School in 1927 and served till his death. He has written accounts of the life of Maulana Mahmud ul Hasan and also an autobiography.
55. Ghalib Nama literally means the letter or document of Ghalib. According to Aybek (q.v.), this document, written at the request of the Shaikh ul Hind Mahmud ul Hasan, also contained explicit exhortations to Indian Muslims to participate fully in the jihad against British forces. However, in his writings in Urdu, Madani says that there was another letter from Ghalib Pasha, giving more explicit information about Ottoman Turkey's commitment to India's struggle in the words of Enver Pasha, but apparently this letter was never intercepted by the British and went astray. See H.A. Madani, Tehrik-e Reshmi Roomal [The Silk Letter Movement], ed. M.A. Rahman (Lahore: Classic, n.d.), pp.187–90.
56. Maulana Muhammad Mian Ansari was a Deoband colleague of Mahmud ul Hasan as well as being the grandson of Maulana Nanotawi.
57. Madani, Tehrik-e Reshmi Roomal, p.201.
58. The gripping adventures that befell these two documents, called the Enver Name (Anwar Nama in Urdu) are separately narrated in ibid., pp.191–9.
59. Group or Party of God.
60. Soldiers of God. Other accounts give the name Junood-e-Rabbani, i.e. Army of the Almighty.
61. Some accounts mention one large kerchief; however in the Urdu translation of the legal proceedings, three silken letters are mentioned. The dimensions of the first are given as six inches by five and this is the covering letter addressed to Shaikh Abdur Rahim. The two letters addressed to the Shaikh ul Hind are 10 inches by 8 and 15 inches by 10. See S.M. Mian (ed.), Tehrik – e Shaikh ul Hind [The Movement of the Shaikh ul Hind] (Karachi: Maktaba Rashidiyya, 1988), p.182.
Maulana Madani adds the information that the text of the message was embroidered in Arabic on the yellow kerchiefs, and also contained both the embroidered as well as the actual (yellow ink) signatures of the Afghan Amir Habibullah and his three sons. These kerchiefs were then hidden among 5 dozen similar yellow kerchiefs.
62. Shaikh Abdur Rahim Sindhi was a staunch Muslim and a trusted worker in the cause of Indian freedom. He was born a Hindu and was the elder brother of the famous Indian politician Acharya Kripalani. He had embraced Islam through the influence of Maulana Obeidullah Sindhi and was a tailor by profession. After the discovery of the silken letters, one of which was addressed to him, he disappeared from view. There were rumours to the effect that he had escaped to Russia; but other unsubstantiated accounts suggest that he lived a life of poverty and died in Sirhind, a town in present-day Indian Punjab.
63. Hyderabad is a city in the province of Sindh in present day Pakistan as opposed to Hyderabad of the Deccan.
64. The name in other accounts is given as Rab Nawaz Khan.
65. Maulana Madani's account continues as follows:
Receiving the goods at 9 p.m. one evening, the Khan wasted no time but arranged for a parcel to be sent at 4 a.m. the very next morning to Khwaja Ghulam Muhammad in Deenpur, Bahawalpur State. This was fortuitous because the police, hot on the track of the silken letters, raided the house of Haq Nawaz Khan and arrested him within a couple of hours of this despatch. After arrival at Deenpur the next day at 10 a.m., the parcel was immediately sent on by the Khwaja via a courier to Hyderabad. The Khwaja was dragged away for questioning the same day to no avail, and the parcel reached Shaikh Abdur Rahim late in the afternoon the next day. Shaikh Abdur Rahim waited till it was dark. He brought out a needle and thread and began to sew the kerchiefs into the lining of his coat but was interrupted by men of the C.I.D. [Criminal Investigation Department] who hopped over the compound wall and entered his house. In the scuffle, they grabbed the kerchiefs but Shaikh Abdur Rahim was able to escape in the dark. | |||||
66. Sir Michael O’Dwyer (1864–1940) was Lieutenant Governor of the Punjab between 1913 and 1919 and approved the Jallianwala Bagh massacre ordered by General Reginald Dyer when, according to official figures, 379 persons were shot dead and about 1200 wounded within a short space of time. Chapter XI of his book, India As I Knew It 1885–1925 (London: Constable & Co., 1925), is titled ‘Pan-Islamist Movement and Mohammedan Conspiracies’. Sir Michael was assassinated in London on 13 March 1940 by Udham Singh.
67. Some accounts indicate that the text was in Arabic, others that it was in Urdu.
68. Sir Charles Cleveland (1866–1929) entered the Indian Civil Service in 1887. He was Inspector General of Police and Prisons in the Central Provinces of India between 1901 and 1910, after which he was appointed Director of Criminal Intelligence.
69. Z.A. Firdausi, Reshmi Roomal Tehrik – aik Tajziya [The Silken Letters Movement – An Analysis] (Lahore: Nigar Shaat, 1988).
70. The titles of Khan and Khan Bahadur, which was one rank higher than Khan, were bestowed in India by the Moghul emperors. The British Indian Government also awarded these titles to Indians, primarily for loyalty to the crown.
71. Firdausi, Reshmi Roomal Tehrik, p.75.
72. M.O. Sindhi, Kabul mein saat saal [Seven Years in Kabul], ed. M. Sarwar (Lahore: Sind Sagar Academy, 1976), pp.88–9.
73. S.R.A. Jafri, Karvan-e Gumgashta [The Lost Caravan (of the Past)] (Karachi: Rais Ahmad Jafri Academy, 1971), pp.516–17.
74. Later to become famous as ‘Lawrence of Arabia’.
75. The redoubtable Ottoman general Fahreddin Pasha bravely beat back the Sherifian forces and held Medina till January 1919. See S.T. Wasti, ‘The Defence of Medina, 1916–19’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.27, No.4 (Oct. 1991), pp.642–53.
76. Among other demands made were that the Shaikh ul Hind publicly denounce the Turks as having put themselves outside the pale of Islam, etc.
77. Some texts give the name as Aziz rather than Uzair; the addition or subtraction of a single dot interchanges the names.
78. Complaining about the conditions of his own imprisonment behind barbed wire, Maulana Madani mentions how one of his brothers was at the same time imprisoned in Turkey in Edirne (Adrianople) for fighting in the British Indian Army against the Turks. However, the younger Madani was treated well and even allowed to walk about within the confines of the city.
79. Firdausi, Reshmi Roomal Tehrik, p.76.
80. The nineteenth century saw a political as well as military struggle between Great Britain and Russia to establish supremacy or gain the upper hand in the Central Asian buffer regions between their empires. Captain Arthur Connolly (who was executed in Bukhara in 1842) coined the expression ‘The Great Game’ for this rivalry.
81. This episode retains special historical interest in Northern India because it was an attempt – albeit unsuccessful – to obtain freedom from foreign rule on the basis of pan-Islamic sentiments.
82. See Öke, Güney Asya Müslümanları.
83. The Indian National Army, generally denoted by the initials INA, was created with Japanese help by Subhash Chandra Bose (1897–1945) during the Second World War and reached a total of 80,000 troops – including former British Indian soldiers and prisoners of war in several countries. The INA assisted the Japanese in several battles in South East Asia. The INA was the military arm of a ‘Provisional Government of Free India’. With Japanese defeats towards the end of the Second World War, the INA lost its power and, meanwhile, the political process that led to the freedom of India had already marched far ahead.