Hide and seek? Israeli–Turkish relations and the Baghdad pact

ABSTRACT

The aim of this article is to address the impact of the Baghdad Pact and the Anglo-American defense system and its collapse on the Turkish–Israeli relationship from 1954 to 1958, a discussion that is absent from scholarly studies. The article will highlight the different approaches and views of the two parties and their impact on the cold war alliances and the Arab–Israeli conflict. Examining this from the perspectives of both Ankara and Jerusalem will contribute to a comprehensive study of the bilateral relations during the 1950s. Some of the main questions to be addressed are: to what extent, if at all, did the Baghdad Pact change bilateral relations between Turkey and Israel? What were Israel's main concerns? Were its suspicions of Turkey's changing policy founded? How much was Turkey influenced by Iraq's membership of the Pact and its hostile attitude toward Israel? Was Turkey's attempt to maintain reasonable relations with both Israel and Iraq a realistic aim? All these will be assessed against regional upheavals and the cold war politics with current implications.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

1. The agreement restored full diplomatic relations between the two countries after an Israeli raid killed Turkish activists on a flotilla seeking to deliver aid to Gaza in May 2010. The deal came after a long chain of talks and fulfilment of some Turkish demands which were the Israeli apology for the raid, compensation for the Turkish families who lost their loved ones and the loosening of the Gaza embargo for humanitarian assistance, at least for Turkish assistance. In return, Turkey dropped the cases against the senior Israeli military officials and also lifted its veto on Israel's opening of an official office at NATO Headquarters in Brussels.

2. B.K. Yeşilbursa, The Baghdad Pact: Anglo-American Defence Policies in the Middle East, 1950-59 (London: Routledge, 2005), pp.1–280; E. Podeh, The Quest for Hegemony in the Arab World: The Struggle over the Baghdad Pact (Leiden: Brill, 1995), pp.1–273; A. Nachmani, Israel, Turkey and Greece-Uneasy Relations in the Mediterranean (London: Frank Cass, 1987), pp.1–124; A. Nigel J, ‘The hijacking of a pact: the formation of the Baghdad Pact and the Anglo-American tensions in the Middle East, 1955-58’, Review of International Studies Vol.19, No.2 (1993), pp. 123–37; G. Özcan, Türkiye-İsrail İlişkilerinde Dönüşüm: Güvenliğin Ötesi (İstanbul: Tesev, 2005), pp.1–140; J. Abadi, ‘Israel and Turkey: From Covert to Overt Relation’, Journal of Conflict Studies Vol.15, No.2 (1995), pp.104–28.

3. O. Bengio, The Turkish-Israeli Relationship: Changing Ties of Middle Eastern Outsiders (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp.1–249; M. Altunışık, ‘The Turkish-Israeli Rapprochement in the Post-Cold War era’, Middle Eastern Studies Vol.36, No.2 (2000), pp.172–91.

4. D. Allan and C. Brown, ‘The Mavi Marmara At The Frontlines Of Web 2.0’, Journal of Palestine Studies Vol.40, No.1 (2010), pp.63–77; U. Uzer, ‘Turkish-Israeli Relations: Their Rise and Fall’, Middle East Policy Vol.20, No.1 (2013), pp.97–110; İ. Aytürk, ‘The Coming of an Ice Age? Turkish–Israeli Relations Since 2002’, Turkish Studies Vol 12, No.4 (2011), pp.675–87.

5. Cumhuriyet (Turkish Daily), 5 July 1950.

6. Israel State Archive (hereafter ISA), HZ 331/1, A. Gefen Research Department to Maar, Western Europe Department, 12 September 1955.

7. T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlüğü, - Cumhuriyet Arşivi. The General Directorate of Turkish State Archives-Directorate of the Republican Archives (henceforth DRA), Bayar's visit,104 64 83 13.

8. Some scholars such as George Emanuel Gruen closely link Turkey's Western identity with its recognition of Israel and interpret it as ‘the window to the West’. See ‘Turkey, Israel and the Palestine Question, 1948-60-A Study in the Diplomacy of Ambivalance’ (PhD Thesis, Columbia University, 1970), p.86.

9. A. Shlaim, ‘Israel between East and the West, 1948–1956’, International Journal of Middle East Studies Vol.36, No.4 (2004), pp.657–73.

10. O. Almog, Britain, Israel and the United States 1951–1958: Beyond Suez (London: Frank Cass, 2003), pp.24, 27–8.

11. Ibid., p.26.

12. J. Abadi, ‘Israel and Turkey – From Covert to Overt Relations’, Journal of Conflict Studies Vol.15, No.2 (1995), pp.104–28. https://tr.scribd.com/document/36026553/Israel-and-Turkey-From-Covert-to-Overt-Relations.

13. A. Sever, ‘The Compliant ally? Turkey and the West in the Middle East, 1954-58’, Middle Eastern Studies Vol.34, No.2 (1998), pp.73–5.

14. The National Archives (hereafter TNA), FO371/131047, Bowker, Ankara to P.F. Hancock, FO, 11 January 1957.

15. For example, the law of the protection of Atatürk, the modernist founder of Turkey, was adopted in 1951 to prevent any radical anti-Atatürk Islamist activities. See Y. Azama, ‘Democratization and Islamic Movements in Turkey’ in M. Kisaichi (ed.), Popular Movements and Democratization in the Islamic World (London: Routledge, 2006), pp.1–209.

16. DRA, 030 18 01 02 142 13 14, 15 February 1956.

17. Given the sensitivity that arose after the riots of 6–7 September in 1955 against minorities, especially Greeks, some steps, such as banning of anti-Jewish publications, were taken (see Örfi İdare Kumandanlığından Başvekalate, Büyük Doğu Gazetesi Hakkında, 3 Mayıs 1956, DRA, 030 01 38352 8) and the government also reassured Israel that it had ‘no intention or inclination to prejudice in any way the security or the right of the Jews of Turkey’. See J. Abadi, ‘Israel and Turkey: From Covert to Overt Relations’. https://tr.scribd.com/document/36026553/Israel-and-Turkey-From-Covert-to-Overt-Relations.

18. Telegram from the Embassy in Lebanon to the Department of State, 24 July 1958, Foreign Relations of the United States (hereafter FRUS) FRUS 1958-60 Lebanon and Jordan, Vol.XI, p.387.

19. ISA, HZ413/8, A memo of discussion with Nuri Birgi, 14 November 1954.

20. A.Nachmani, Israel, Turkey and Greece, p.53.

21. Ibid.

22. Memorandum of Conversation (Rountree), 26 May 1953, FRUS 1952-54, Vol.IX, 139.

23. DRA, Muhtelif Tarihli Suriye basınında Türkiye ile ilgili konularda yayınlanan makaleler, 28.12.1954 (Al Şa'ab, 030110465005, 22 November 1954.

24. Z. Levey,’ Israel's Quest for a Security Guarantee from the United States’, 1954-56, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.22, No.2 (1995), p.43.

25. FRUS, Telegram from the Washington to US embassy Tel- Aviv, Vol.XII, 1955-57 Near East, 19 May1955.

26. New York Times, 12 September 1955.

27. TNA, FO371/115867, A text of a letter from Israeli Prime Minister to US Secretary of State, 12 April 1955.

28. TNA, FO371/115469, Record of Meeting between Mr.Macmillan and Mr.Dulles at Geneva, 9 November 1955.

29. Ben–Gurion Archive, (hereafter BGA) The Israeli military attaché Gaon, 1 January 1954.

30. ISA, HZ280/23 PM address to the Knesset, 2 March 1955.

31. Ibid.

32. Knesset protocols, p.666, 26 January 1955.

33. Ibid.

34. Ibid.

35. FRUS 1955-57, Vol.XII, Near East: Iran-Iraq, pp.176–82.

36. Concern of Israel over Terms and Implications of Projected Turk-Iraqi Pact, National Archives, Washington, DC (henceforth NA), 682.87/2-155, 2 February 1955.

37. TNA, FO371/115492, FO to Bowker, 19 February 1955.

38. TNA, FO371/113576, Stevenson, Cairo to FO, Fortnightly Political Summary, 30 December 1954.

39. Muhtelif tarihli Suriye basınlarında çeşitli konularda yayınlanmış makalelerin tercümeleri, DRA, 03001 104 648 313, 4 March 1954.

40. B.H. Reid, ‘The Northern Tier and the Baghdad Pact’, in J.W. Young (ed.), The Foreign Policy of Churchill's Peacetime Administrators 1951–1955 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1988), pp.159–79.

41. A settlement of the Palestine question , the so-called Alpha was worked out between the Foreign Office and the State Department during the first quarter of 1955.

42. ISA, HZ 331/1 Israeli embassy Brussels to Maar, 20 April 1955.

43. ISA, HZ331/1 Research department to head of Maar, 1 August 1955.

44. ISA, HZ 331/1, Israeli Embassy, Brussels to Maar, 20 April 1955.

45. Milliyet (Turkish Daily), 20 December 1955.

46. ISA, HZ 280/23, 2 March 1955, address to the Knesset.

47. ISA, HZ 257/1, Maar to Israel consulate Ankara, 2 July 1956

48. ISA, HZ 331/1 Ambassador to Maar, 22 November1955.

49. Ibid.

50. ISA, 412/15, Research department survey 1955.

51. ISA, HZ 331/1 Ankara to Sharett discussion with Menderes and Birgi, 28 January 1955.

52. ISA, HZ413/8, Memorandum, A discussion with Nuri Birgi, 14 November 1954.

53. TNA, FO371/115503, FO Minute, E.M. Rose, 22 March 1955.

54. TNA, FO371/115487, Bowker, Ankara to Shuckburgh, FO, 25 January 1955.

55. TNA, FO371/115461, BMEO to Eastern Department, 26 January 1955.

56. TNA, FO371/115492, FO to Bowker, 20 February 1955.

57. TNA, FO371/115503, British Embassy, Tel Aviv to Michael Rose, FO, 22 March 1955.

58. TNA FO371/115492, FO to Ankara, 20 February 1955-22 February 1955.

59. TNA, FO371/115498, 7 March 1955.

60. DRA, Beyrut Büyükelçiliğinden Bağdat Büyükelçiliğine, 03001127824 8, 21 December 1956.

61. TNA, FO371/115496 FO Minute, Levant Department, 3 March 1955; Warren to Secretary of State, NA Central Files, 682.86B /3-955, 18 January 1955.

62. TNA, FO371/115516, 27 July 1955.

63. Bağdat Paktının Mahrem Bölümleri - Türk Irak Andlaşması ve Salih Aslem'in Şam'daki beyanları hakkında, Ayın Tarihi (The Monthly Record published by the Press Department of the Prime Minister's Office), 5 Mart 1955.

64. Milliyet, 8 February 1955.

65. TNA, FO371/115897, From Cairo to FO, ‘Ankara Radio: Gaza: Turkey expresses sympathy to Egypt’, 1 March 1955.

66. TNA,, FO371/115469, Duke to Macmillan, 16 November 1955,

67. TNA, FO371/115867, A Text of a letter from Israeli Prime Minister to US Secretary of State, 12 April 1955.

68. DRA, ‘Türkiye ve İsrail - Elçinin geri çekilmesi tenkid edildi’, 030 01 13386237, December 1956. Opposition parties condemned the governing party's decision to call the Ambassador back and thus the loss of Turkey's neutrality in the Palestinian issue.

69. Zafer (Turkish Daily), 17 November 1956.

70. TNA, FO371/121700, 28 December 1956.

71. ISA, HZ 257/1, Israeli foreign office to Israeli consulate Ankara, 30 November 1956.

72. ISA, HZ 257/1, Eityan General Director to Fischer Ankara, 3 December 1957.

73. TNA, F0371/12170, Bowker, Ankara to Selwyn Lloyd, 28 December 1956.

74. ISA, HZ 331/1 Ankara to Sharett discussion with Menderes and Birgi, 28 January 1955.

75. One of the greatest advocates for this policy was Eliyahu Sasson, Israel's ambassador to Rome who warned lack of Israeli initiative might sour relationship with Turkey even further. See ISA, HZ412/15, Sasson to Maar, 10 July 1957.

76. For further discussion on Israel's policy during this time, see ISA, Documents on Israeli Foreign Policy, Vol.13, 1958–1959 (Jerusalem: 2000).

77. O. Almog, Britain, Israel and the United States 1951–1958: Beyond Suez, (London: Frank Cass, 2003), p.180.

78. TNA, PREM11/2368, Bowker, Ankara to FO, 12 August 1958; TNA, AIR8/1958, Chiefs of Staff Committee, 8 December 1958.

79. NSC5708/2, National Security Council, US Policy Towards Turkey, Operations Coordinating Board Report, 10 December 1958 (Washington, D.C: 29 January, 1958); Zafer, 21 Ağustos 1958.

80. Abadi, ‘Israel and Turkey…’.

81. ISA, Documents on Foreign Policy 1958-59, Vol.13, Doc. No.428 and 429.

82. A. Nachmani, ‘Middle East Listening Post: Eliyahu Sasson and the Israeli Legation in Turkey, 1942-1952’, Studies in Zionism Vol.6, No.2 (1985), pp.263–85.

83. TNA, AİR8/1959, Ankara to FO, 21 May 1959.

84. ISA, Moshe Sasson to Eliyahu Sasson, Rome, 25 May 1959. See also ISA, HZ 412/15.

85. Ibid.

86. ISA, Shiloah Israeli Foreign Office and Mossad to Eliyahu Sasson, Rome, 5 January 1959.

87. A. Nachmani, Israel, Turkey and Greece, p.75.

88. ISA, Documents no. 429, meeting between Turkish and Israeli Prime Ministers 29 August 1958. For further details, see M. Bar-Zohar, Ben-Gurion (Tel-Aviv: Am-Oved, 1977), pp.1329–30.

89. ISA, Doc. 430, Ben-Gurion to Washington, 8 September 1958.