Hygienic beauty: discussing Ottoman-Muslim female beauty, health and hygiene in the Hamidian Era

ABSTRACT

This article examines discussions on Ottoman-Muslim female beauty, health and hygiene in the Hamidian Era (1876–1909). Analysing the Hamidian popular press, advice literature and textbooks for girls, the article argues that these discussions were more than just female ‘physical culture’ debates, involving larger issues of late-Ottoman regeneration. Wars, epidemics, massive migration movements and fluctuations in population pushed the late-Ottoman state to create healthy generations as a productive force to secure the Empire's future in general and the Ottoman Muslim population's welfare in particular. Maintaining good health expanded from a religious obligation into now also becoming a patriotic duty incumbent upon Ottoman subjects knowing and applying modern hygienic principles. Focus on Ottoman-Muslim women's procreativity shifted female beauty into a public discussion, now defined as a reflection of health. The new hygienic beauty discourse distinguished between preserving vs. harming one's health in the face of Western fashions and cosmetics: healthy beauty mirrored a ‘good complexion’.

KEYWORDS:

• Ottoman-Muslim women
• beauty
• health
• hygiene
• cosmetics
• Abdulhamid II

Acknowledgments

A preliminary version of this article was presented at the workshop Women at the Crossroads of History: Studies from the Ottoman Empire, Turkey, and the U.S.A., 1876–1935 organized at Bilkent University in May 2013. I thank N.B. Criss for organizing this workshop and for her guidance and help on the subsequent article. I would also like to thank P. Latimer, A. Ozer, K. Weisbrode, S.A. Somel and J. Alexander for all their helpful suggestions, comments, and critiques on earlier drafts of this article and the anonymous reviewers and the editor of MES. All Ottoman-Turkish translations into English are by the author unless stated otherwise.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. On HMG, see E.B. Frierson, ‘Unimagined Communities: State, Press and Gender in the Hamidian Era’ (PhD thesis, Princeton University, 1996); A.Z. Enis, Everyday Lives of Ottoman Muslim Women: Hanımlara Mahsus Gazete (Newspaper for Ladies) (1895--1908) (Istanbul: Libra Books, 2013).

2. Sultanahmed'den V. Fahire, ‘Muhterem Karielerime’, HMG, No.323-121 (22 Rebiyülahir 1319/8 August 1901), p.6.

3. M. Asım, ‘Güzellik ve Tuvalet: Gençliği Muhafaza’, HMG, No.321-119 (8 Rebiyülahir 1319/25 July 1901), pp.3–4.

4. See Enis, Everyday Lives, pp.487–9 and Z. Toska, S. Çakır, T. Gençtürk, S. Yılmaz, S. Kurç, G. Art and A. Demirdirek, İstanbul Kütüphanelerindeki Eski Harfli Türkçe Kadın Dergileri Bibliyografyası (1869–1927) (Istanbul: Kadın Eserleri Kütüphanesi ve Bilgi Merkezi Vakfı & Metis Yayınları, 1992).

5. Asım, ‘Güzellik ve Tuvalet: Gençliği Muhafaza’.

6. Sultanahmed'den V. Fahire, ‘Muhterem Karielerime’, p.6.

7. M. Asım, ‘Yüzdeki Buruşuklar’, HMG, No.324-122 (29 Rebiyülahir 1319/15 August 1901), pp.1–3.

8. I. Zweiniger-Bargielowska, ‘The Making of a Modern Female Body: Beauty, Health and Fitness in Interwar Britain’, Women's History Review Vol.20, No.2 (2011), pp.299–317.

9. L. Peirce, Morality Tales: Law and Gender in the Ottoman Court of Aintab (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 2003), p.158.

10. See D. Kandiyoti, ‘Slave Girls, Temptresses, and Comrades: Images of Women in the Turkish Novel’, Feminist Issues Vol.8, No.1 (1988), pp.35–50; A. Najmabadi, ‘The Erotic Vatan [Homeland] as Beloved and Mother: To Love, To Possess, and To Protect’, Comparative Study in Society and History Vol.39, No.3 (1997), pp.442–67; M. Tavakoli-Targhi, ‘Going Public: Patriotic and Matriotic Homeland in Iranian Nationalist Discourses’, Strategies: Journal of Theory, Culture and Politics Vol.13, No.2 (2000), pp.175–200 and M. Tavakoli-Targhi, ‘From Patriotism to Matriotism: A Tropological Study of Iranian Nationalism, 1870–1909’, International Journal of Middle East Studies Vol.34 (2002), pp.217–38; F. Kashani-Sabet, ‘The Politics of Reproduction: Maternalism and Women's Hygiene in İran, 1896–1941’, International Journal of Middle East Studies Vol.38, No.1 (February 2006), pp.1–29 and F. Kashani-Sabet, Conceiving Citizens: Women and the Politics of Motherhood in Iran (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011); J.J. Pettman, Boundary Politics: Women, Nationalism, and Danger in New Frontiers in Women's Studies: Knowledge, Identity and Nationalism, eds. M. Maynard and J. Purvis (Taylor and Francis, 1996), pp.187--202; N. Şeni, ‘Ville Ottomane et représentations du corps féminin’, Les Temps Modernes (July–August 1984), pp.66–95; N. Göle, The Forbidden Mahrem: Civilization and Veiling (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); M.F. Hatem, The Professionalization of Health and the Control of Women's Bodies as Modern Governmentalities in Nineteenth-Century Egypt in Women in the Ottoman Empire: Middle Eastern Women in the Early Modern Era, ed. M.C. Zilfi (Leiden: Brill, 1987), pp.66–80; T. Demirci and S.A. Somel, ‘Women's Bodies, Demography, and Public Health: Abortion Policy and Perspectives in the Ottoman Empire of the Nineteenth Century’, Journal of the History of Sexuality Vol.17, No.3 (September 2008), pp.377–420; G. Balsoy, The Politics of Reproduction in Ottoman Society, 1838–1900 (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2013); B. Baron, Egypt as a Woman: Nationalism, Gender, and Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007); C. Kahlenberg, ‘“The Gospel of Health”: American Missionaries and the Transformation of Ottoman/Turkish Women's Bodies, 1890–1932’, Gender and History Vol.28, No.1 (2016), pp.150–76.

11. See B. Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (3rd ed, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); E. J. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History (London, New York: I.B. Tauris, 2004); M.Ş. Hanioğlu, A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010); C.V. Findley, Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980); S.A. Somel, The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire, 1839–1908: Islamization, Autocracy and Discipline (Leiden: Brill, 2001); B. Fortna, Imperial Classroom: Islam, Education and State in the Late Ottoman Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); S. Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains: Ideology and Legitimization of Power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909 (London, New York, I.B. Tauris, 1999); E. D. Akarlı, ‘The Problems of External Pressures, Power Struggles, and Budgetary Deficits in Ottoman Politics Under Abdülhamid II (1876–1909) (PhD thesis, Princeton University, 1976); K.H. Karpat, The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).

12. T. Demirci, ‘Body, Disease and Late Ottoman Literature: Debates on the Ottoman Muslim Family in the Tanzimat Period (1839–1908)’ (PhD thesis, Bilkent University, 2008), p.24.

13. S. Dursun, ‘Procreation, Family and “Progress”: Administrative and Economic Aspects of Ottoman Population Policies in the 19th Century’, History of the Family Vol.16 (2001), p.1 (abstract).

14. Demirci and Somel, ‘Women's Bodies’. For a representative sample on Ottoman public health policies, see D. Panzac, ‘Tanzimat et santé publique: Les débuts du conseil sanitaire de l'Empire ottoman’ in Population et santé dans l'Empire ottoman (XVIIIe-XXe siècles), ed. D. Panzac (Istanbul: Isis, 1996), pp.77–85; N. Yıldırım, ‘Tanzimat'tan Cumhuriyet'e Koruyucu Sağlık Uygulamaları’ in Tanzimat'tan Cumhuriye'te Türkiye Ansiklopedisi, ed. Murat Belge (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1985), Vol.5, pp.1320–38 and N. Yıldırım, 14. Yüzyıldan Cumhuriyet'e Hastalıklar – Hastaneler – Kurumlar, Sağlık Tarihi Yazıları – I (Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2014).

15. G. Balsoy, The Politics of Reproduction in Ottoman Society, 1838–1900 (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2013), p.1. See also S.A. Somel, ‘Osmanlı Son Döneminde Iskat-ı Cenin Meselesi’, Kebikeç Vol.13 (2002), pp.65–88; Demirci and Somel, ‘Women's Bodies’; Balsoy, The Politics of Reproduction; E.E. Akşit, ‘Geç Osmanlı ve Cumhuriyet Dönemlerinde Nüfus Kontrolü Yaklaşımları’, Toplum ve Bilim Vol.117 (2010), pp.179–97; G. Balsoy, ‘Geç Osmanlı Nüfus ve Kadın Bedeni Politikaları’, Toplum ve Bilim Vol.134 (2015), pp.5–29.

16. Demirci and Somel, ‘Women's Bodies’, p.402.

17. İ.H. Kalkan, ‘Medicine and Politics in the Late Ottoman Empire (1876–1909)’ (Master's thesis, Boğaziçi University, 2004).

18. Ibid., p.27.

19. M.M. Patrick, Under Five Sultans (New York, London: The Century Co., 1929), p.168.

20. E.B. Frierson, Gender, Consumption and Patriotism: The Emergence of an Ottoman Public Sphere in Public Islam and the Common Good, eds. A. Salvatore and D.E. Eickelman (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2004), pp.104–5; I.C. Schick, ‘Print Capitalism and Women's Sexual Agency in the Late Ottoman Empire’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, Vol.31, No.1 (2011), pp.196–216.

21. M. Arif, ‘Fünun: Tedavi-yi Bizzat'dan Maksadımız’, Hazine-i Fünun Vol.I, No.41 (13 Şevval 1311/19 April 1894), p.332. For similar discussions in the non-Muslim press, see S.A. Stein, Making Jews Modern: The Yiddish and Ladino Press in the Russian and Ottoman Empires (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2004); D. Köksal and A. Falierou (eds.), A Social History of Late Ottoman Women: New Perspectives (Leiden & Boston: Brill, 2013).

22. Demirci, ‘Body, Disease and Late Ottoman Literature’. On the Ottoman-Turkish family, see A. Duben and C. Behar, Istanbul Households: Marriage, Family, and Fertility, 1880–1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); N. Sirman, ‘Constituting the Modern Family as the Social in the Transition from Empire to Nation-State’, in Anna Frangoudaki and Çağlar Keyder (eds.), Ways to Modernity in Greece and Turkey: Encounters With Europe, 1850-1950 (London: I.B. Tauris, 2007), pp.176–190. Sosyo-Kültürel Değişme Sürecinde Türk Ailesi (3 Vol.) (Ankara: T.C. Başbakanlık Aile Araştırma Kurumu, 1992); D. Cebeci, Tanzimat ve Türk Ailesi (Istanbul: Ötüken Yayınları, 1993); Nüket Esen, Türk Romanında Aile Kurumu (1870–1970) (Ankara: Başbakanlık Aile Araştırma Kurumu, 1991); İ. Ortaylı, Osmanlı Toplumunda Aile (Istanbul: Timaş Yayınları, 2009); Z. Toprak, The Family, Feminism, and the State During the Young Turk Period, 1908–1918 in Première Rencontre sur l'Empire Ottoman et la Turquie Moderne (Istanbul: Isis, 1991), ss.441–52.

23. H.D. Jenkins, Behind Turkish Lattices: The Story of a Turkish Woman's Life (Philadelphia, London: Chatto & Windus, 1911), pp.98–9.

24. For debates on marriage, see N. Sirman, Gender Construction and Nationalist Discourse: Dethroning the Father in the Early Turkish Novel in Gender and Identity Construction: Women in Central Asia, eds. F. Acar and A. Güneş-Ayata (Leiden: Brill, 1999), pp.162–77; D. Kandiyoti, ‘End of Empire: Islam, Nationalism and Women in Turkey’ in Women, Islam and the State, ed. D. Kandiyoti (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991), pp.22–47; D. Kandiyoti, ‘Slave Girls, Temptresses, and Comrades’; Duben and Behar, Istanbul Households; T. Demirci, ‘Body, Disease and Late Ottoman Literature’; I.C. Schick, ‘Print Capitalism and Women's Sexual Agency in the Late Ottoman Empire’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East Vol.31, No.1 (2001), pp.196–216; P. Başçı, ‘Love, Marriage, and Motherhood: Changing Expectations of Women in Late Ottoman Istanbul’, Turkish Studies Vol.4, No.3 (2003), pp.145–77; E.E. Akşit, ‘Fatma Aliye's Stories: Ottoman Marriages Beyond the Harem’, Journal of Family History Vol.35, No.3 (2010), pp.207–18.

25. ‘Kadınlara Malumat: İzdivac’, Sabah, No.1889 (13 Cemaziyülevvel 1312/12 November 1894), pp.17–18; see also Duben and Behar, Istanbul Households, p.104.

26. Ibid., p.104.

27. Ibid., p.104.

28. Frierson, ‘Gender, Consumption and Patriotism’, p.112.

29. On housewifery in HMG, see Enis, Everyday Lives, pp.259–339.

30. Ş.Sami, ‘Kadının Vezaifi’, Aile Vol.1, No.2 (24 Cemaziyülahir 1297/3 June 1880), p.19. See also G. W. Gawrych, ‘Şemseddin Sami, Women, and Social Conscience in the Late Ottoman Empire’, Middle Eastern Studies Vol.46, No.1 (January 2010), pp.97–115.

31. Sami, ‘Kadının Vezaifi’, p.20.

32. Frierson, ‘Unimagined Communities’; see also E.B. Frierson, ‘Unimagined Communities: Women and Education in the Late-Ottoman Empire 1876–1909’, Critical Matrix Vol.9, No.2 (1995), pp.55–90; T. Demirci-Yılmaz, ‘Osmanlı ve Erken Cumhuriyet Dönemi Türkiye Modernleşmesinde Annelik Kurguları (1840–1950)’, Cogito: Annelik, 81 (2015); F. Saygılıgil, ‘Anneliğin Osmanlı Romanında Kurgulanışı’, Toplum ve Bilim, pp.144–61; Enis, Everyday Lives of; Başçı, ‘Love, Marriage and Motherhood’; Akşit, ‘Fatma Aliye's Stories’.

33. M.F. Şoenu - M. Sami, Kadın Jimnastiği Yahud Vücudun Terbiye-i Bediiyesi (İstanbul: Zarafet Matbaası, n.d.), p.21.

34. İsmet, ‘Güzel Sözler’, HMG, No.25 (8 Cemaziyülahir 1313/26 November 1895), p.4.

35. ‘The görücü was a woman dispatched by the family of the prospective groom to scout for a bride. She might be his mother, a close female relative, a woman hired for the purpose’. Quoted in F. Davis, The Ottoman Lady: A Social History from 1718–1918 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986), p.61.

36. Ş. Bint-i Macit, ‘Kendini Zevcine Sevdirmek Sanatı’, HMG, No.31 (23 Recep 1321/15 October 1903), pp.723; Ş. Bint-i Macit, ‘Kendini Zevcine Sevdirmek Sanatı’, HMG, No.32 (30 Recep 1321/22 October 1903), pp.747–9; Ş. Bint-i Macit, ‘Kendini Zevcine Sevdirmek Sanatı’, HMG, No.33 (8 Şaban 1321/30 October 1903), pp.771–2; Saime, ‘Makale-i Mahsusa: Güzellik ve Zevciyet’, HMG, No.6 (4 Safer 1322/20 April 1904), pp.83–5.

37. Dr. Wöker, ‘Hüsn ü An: Sıhhat ve Hıfzısıhhatde Kadın’ (transl. T. Ali), HMG, No.1 (20 Zilhicce 1320/20 March 1903), p.9.

38. Baronne Staffe, Cabinet de Toilette (Paris: Havard,1891).

39. S.A. Hikmet, Tuvalet ve Letafet-i Aza (Konstantiniye: Matbaa-ı Ebuzziya, 1309/1891–2). On Gülnar Hanım, see C.V. Findley, ‘An Ottoman Occidentalist in Europe: Ahmed Midhat Meets Madame Gülnar, 1889’, The American Historical Review, Vol.103, No.1 (February 1998), pp.15–49.

40. Hikmet, Tuvalet ve Letafet-i Aza, p.6.

41. M. Asım, ‘Nasıl Güzelleşmeli-İki Söz; Niçün ve Nasıl Güzelleşmeli’, HMG, No.355 (24 Zilhicce 1319/3 April 1902), p.1.

42. Hikmet, Tuvalet ve Letafet-i Aza, p.193.

43. ‘Güzel Sözler’, HMG, No.24 (4 Cemaziyülahir 1313/22 November 1895), p.5.

44. T. Ali, ‘Makale-i Mahsusa - Hüsn ü An: Sıhhat ve Hıfz-ı Sıhhatde Kadın’, HMG, No.2 (27 Zilhicce 1320/27 March 1903), pp.29–30.

45. ‘Güzel Sözler’, HMG, No.23 (1 Cemaziyülahir 1313/19 November 1895), p.4.

46. ‘Suni Güzellik Neticesi’, HMG, No.538 (10 Şevval 1323/8 December 1905), pp.1–2.

47. Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Çehrenin Rengi’, HMG, No.20 (19 Cemaziyülevvel 1313/7 November 1895), p.6.

48. ‘Sıhhat ve Hüsn’, HMG, No.569 (27 Cemaziyülevvel 1324/19 July 1906), p.7; ‘Hüsn Nasıl Muhafaza Edilir?’, HMG, No.510 (13 Rebiyülevvel 1323/18 May 1905), p.1; Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Çehrenin Rengi’, p.6.

49. On disapproval of cosmetics in France, see M. Martin, ‘Doctoring Beauty: The Medical Control of Women's Toilette's in France,1750–1820’, Medical History, Vol.49, No.9 (2005), pp.351–68 and M. Martin, Selling Beauty: Cosmetics and Commerce, and French Society, 1750–1830 (Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 2009).

50. ‘Vesaya-yı Müfide-i Tıbbıye’, HMG, No.34 (12 Cemaziyülevvel 1326/12 June 1908), p.5.

51. T. Ali, ‘Makale-i Mahsusa - Hüsn ü An: Sıhhat ve Hıfz-ı Sıhhatde Kadın’, HMG, No.2 (27 Zilhicce 1320/27 March 1903), p.29.

52. HMG, No.371 (18 Rebiyülahir 1320/25 July 1902), p.8. On advertisements in the Second Constitutional Era, see P. Başçı, ‘Advertising “the New Woman”: Fashion, Beauty, and Health in Women's World’, International Journal of Turkish Studies, Vol.1, No.1/2 (2005), pp.61–80.

53. Şoenu-Sami, Kadın Jimnastiği, p.49.

54. M. Asım, ‘Güzellik, Tuvalet ve Sıhhat: Ten ve Beşere’, pp.2–3.

55. See S. Connor, The Book of Skin (London: Reaktion Books, 2004); C. Benthien, Skin: On the Cultural Border Between Self and the World (transl. T. Dunlap, New York: Columbia University Press, 2002); J. Reinarz and K. Siena (eds.), A Medical History of Skin: Scratching the Surface (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2013); M. te Hennepe, ‘Depicting Skin: Visual Culture in Nineteenth-Century Medicine’ (PhD thesis, University of Maastricht, 2007); D. Garrisi, ‘Reading Skin in Victorian Newpapers: An Analysis of British Newspapers’ Coverage of Human Skin, 1840–1900’ (PhD thesis, University of Westminster, 2015).

56. Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Çehrenin Rengi’, p.6; Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Yüze Arız Olan Hastalıklar, Yüzdeki Kıllar’, HMG, No.22 (26 Cemaziyülevvel 1313/14 November 1895), p.5

57. ‘Letafet-i Tabiiye – Letafet-i Sınaiye’, HMG, No.10 (18 Rebiyülahir 1313/8 October 1895), p.2.

58. L.M.J. Garnett, The Women of Turkey and Their Folk-lore, Vol.II (London: D. Nutt, 1891), p.428.

59. ‘Güzel Sözler’, HMG, No.24 (4 Cemaziyülahir 1313/22 November 1895), p.5.

60. M. Asım, ‘Güzellik, Tuvalet ve Sıhhat: Çehre Buruşukları’, pp.3–4; Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Çehredeki Buruşuklar’, HMG, No.21 (23 Cemaziyülevvel 1313/11 November 1895), p.6.

61. Ottoman womanhood was a process in flux depending on one's age and procreative capacity. See Leslie P. Peirce, ‘Seniority, Sexuality, and Social Order: The Vocabulary of Gender in Early Modern Ottoman Society’, in Women in the Ottoman Empire: Middle Eastern Women in the Early Modern Era, ed. M.C. Zilfi (Leiden: Brill, 1997), pp.169–96.

62. ‘Düzgün’, R.E. Koçu, Türk Giyim Kuşam ve Süslenme Sözlüğü (İstanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2015), p.104.

63. M. Asım, ‘Güzellik ve Tuvalet: Gençliği Muhafaza’.

64. Ş. Akif, Sıhhı Musahabeler:Kadın ve Doktor Arasında (İstanbul: Matbaa-ı Ahmed İhsan,1326/1908–9), pp.4–5.

65. İlan-ı Ticaret: Resimli İlanlar Perspektifinde Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyet'e İstanbul Ticarî Hayatı, eds. A. Kolay, D. Hızal, B. Durak and M. Arslan (İstanbul: İstanbul Ticaret Odası, 2011), p.96. Thanks to Ö. Özer for drawing my attention to this source.

66. Ş.Sami, ‘Sıhhat’, Aile Vol.1, No.2 (24 Cemaziyülahir 1297/3 June 1880), p.26.

67. Dr Edhem, Kızlara Kıraat-ı Sıhhıye (Selanik: Zaman Matbaası, 1326/1908–9), p.1.

68. T. Ali, ‘Makale-i Mahsusa: Hüsn ü An: Sıhhat ve Hıfzısıhhatde Kadın’, p.30.

69. Şoenu-Sami, Kadın Jimnastiği, p.50.

70. For discussions on female beauty, health and hygiene in Western contexts, see K. Peiss, Hope in a Jar: The Making of America's Beauty Culture (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1998); M.L. Stewart, For Health and Beauty: Physical Culture for Frenchwomen, 1880s-1930s (Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 2001); J. Todd, Physical Culture and the Body Beautiful: Purposive Exercise in the Lives of American Women 1800–1875 (Georgia: Mercer University Press, 1998); I. Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Managing the Body: Beauty, Health, and Fitness in Britain, 1880–1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).

71. A. Rasim, ‘Kadınlarda Güzel Görünmek Hevesi-1’, HMG, No.369 (4 Rebiyülahir 1320/11 July 1902), pp.1–3.

72. ‘Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Çehrenin Rengi’, p.6.

73. ‘Günde Kaç Defa ve Ne Vakitler Yemek Yemeli’, HMG, No.496 (27 Zilkade 1322/2 February 1905), pp.1–2.

74. ‘Tenbihat-ı Sıhhıye’, HMG, No.22 (26 Cemaziyülevvel 1313/14 November 1895), p.6.

75. M. Asım, ‘Güzellik, Tuvalet ve Sıhhat: Çehre ve Letafeti’, HMG, No.298–96 (17 Şevval 1318/7 February 1901), pp.2–3.

76. Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Dişler; Dişlere Olunacak Dikkat; Diş Bulunmazsa Ne Olur, Dişlerin Faidesi; Diş Ağrılarının İcabı; Diş Suyu; Diş Fırçaları; Dişleri Nasıl Yıkayıp Fırçalamalı; Ağız Kokusu; Ne Vakit Su İçmeli, Vesaire’, HMG, No.31 (29 Cemaziyülahir 1313/17 December 1895), pp.5–6; Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Dişlerin Hıfz-ı Sıhhati’, HMG, No.33 (6 Receb 1313/23 December 1895), pp.6–7; Aile Hekimi, Çeki Düzen Odası: Dişler; Diş Etleri; Diş Etleri Hastalıkları; Bu Babda İcab Eden Tedabir-i Mukteziyye; Dişlerin ve Etlerinin Hıfz-ı Sıhhati İçin Ne Yiyüb İçilmelidir; Mekulatı Nasıl Yemeli; Malumat-ı Saire’, HMG, No.40 (1 Şaban 1313/17 January 1896), p.7; Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Diş Ağrıları’, HMG, No.45 (19 Şaban 1313/4 February 1896), p.7; Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Diş Tozları’, HMG, No.48 (29 Şaban 1313/14 February 1896), pp.6–7.

77. ‘Fünun: Dişler’, Hazine-i Fünun, No.31 (2 Recep 1311/9 January 1894), p.231.

78. ‘Yeni Usul Damağsız Diş’, HMG, No.55 (11 Şevval 1313/26 March 1896), p.3; ‘Kına Kınalı Pertev Diş Tozu, Menekşeli Pertev Diş Tozu’, HMG, No.383 (21 Recep 1320/24 October 1902), p.8; ‘Dişlerin ve Ağzın Sıhhatı’, HMG, No.497 (5 Zilhicce 1322/10 February 1905), p.7.

79. ‘Taravet-i Nisvaniyye ve Uyku’, HMG, No.538 (10 Şevval 1323/8 December 1905), pp.3–4.

80. Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Güneş Urmak – Güneşden Kararma – Sam Çarpması – Yüzde Hasıl Olan Çiller – Bunların Suret-i Tedavileri’, HMG, No.23 (1 Cemaziyülevvel 1313/20 Ekim 1895), pp.6–7; Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Yüze Arız Olan Hastalıklar, Yüzdeki Kıllar’, p.5; Hikmet, Tuvalet ve Letafet-i Aza.

81. A. Midhat, Musahabat-ı Leyliye, Altıncı Musahabe: Kadınlarda Hıfz-ı Cemal (Istanbul: 1304/1886–7), p.17.

82. Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Yüze Sürülen Şeyler’, HMG, No.24 (4 Cemaziyülahir 1313/22 November 1895), p.6; ‘Düzgün’, HMG, No.41 (5 Şaban 1313/21 January 1896), pp.1–2; ‘Tuvalet ve Güzellik Nasihatlerinden: Düzgünlenmek İçin’, HMG, No.320–118 (1 Rebiyülahir 1319/18 July 1901), p.7; Akif, Sıhhı Musahabeler; Hikmet, Tuvalet ve Letafet-i Aza.

83. M. Süleyman, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Düzgünler ve Kadınlar’, HMG, No.96 (16 Şaban 1314/20 January 1897), p.8. See also B. Kanter, ‘Meşrutiyet Döneminde Kadın Hakları Savunuculuğunda Gelenekçi Bir Yazar: Avanzade Mehmet Süleyman’, Erdem, Vol.63 (2012), pp.127–51.

84. Hikmet, Tuvalet ve Letafet-i Aza, p.207.

85. Dr Edhem, Kızlara Kıraat-ı Sıhhıye, pp.21–2.

86. M. Asım, ‘Nasıl Güzelleşmeli? Ameli Dersler’, HMG, No.357 (8 Muharrem 1320/17 April 1902), p.3.

87. Aile Hekimi, ‘Dudakların Hıfz-ı Sıhhati; Dudaklar İçin Pomatlar’, HMG, No.36 (16 Recep 1313/2 January 1896), p.6.

88. M. Asım, ‘Nasıl Güzelleşmeli? Itriyat, Pudralar’, HMG, No.359, 22 Muharrem 1320/1 May 1902, pp.2–3; A. Faruki, ‘Beyaz Kamelya Pudrası’, HMG, No.79 (16 Rebiyülahir 1314/24 September 1896), pp.6–7; M. Süleyman, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Pudralar’, HMG, No.101 (22 Ramazan 1314/24 February 1897), pp.2–3; ‘Zambak Pudrası’, HMG, No.240–38 (4 Şaban 1317/8 December 1899), pp.2–3; ‘Pudralar Hakkında Bir Mütalaat-ı Sıhhıye’, HMG, No.277–75 (11 Cemaziyülevvel 1318/6 September 1900), pp.1–2; İ. Hakkı, ‘Pirinç Unundan Pudra’, HMG, No.392 (9 Şevval 1320/9 January 1903), p.6.; İ. Hakkı, ‘Pirinç Unundan Pudra’, HMG, No.394 (23 Şevval 1320/23 January 1903), p.6; ‘Halis Pudra’, HMG, No.16 (16 Rebiyülahir 1322/30 June 1904), pp.243–4; H. Rüşdü, ‘Şebboy Pudrası’, HMG, No.18 (1 Cemaziyülevvel 1322/14 July 1904), pp.278–9; ‘Pudranın Suret-i İstimali’; Hikmet, Tuvalet ve Letafet-i Aza.

89. For washing practices in the West, see G. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness: Changing Attitudes in France since the Middle Ages, (transl. J. Birrell) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); V. Smith, Clean: A History of Personal Hygiene and Purity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).

90. Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Yüz Nasıl Yıkanılır?’, HMG, No.19 (16 Cemaziyülevvel 1313/4 November 1895), p.6.

91. Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Yüz Nasıl Yıkanılır?’, p.6; Hikmet, Tuvalet ve Letafet-i Aza.

92. ‘Kavaid-i Sıhhıye’, HMG, No.27 (15 Cemaziyülahir 1313/3 December 1895), p.6.

93. Aile Hekimi, ‘Çeki Düzen Odası: Yüz Nasıl Yıkanılır?’, p.6; Hikmet, Tuvalet ve Letafet-i Aza.

94. M. Asım, ‘Güzellik, Tuvalet ve Sıhhat: Çehre ve Letafeti’, pp.2–3.

95. Akif, Sıhhı Musahabeler; Said, Beka-yı Sıhhat.

96. M. Asım, ‘Güzellik, Tuvalet ve Sıhhat: Ayak ve Ayakkabıları’, pp.1–2; ‘Ayakların Muhafaza-ı Sıhhati’, HMG, No.42 (17 Şevval 1321/6 January 1904), pp.976–7; ‘Dar Ayakkabının Mazarratı’, HMG, No.496 (27 Zilkade 1322/2 February 1905), pp.3–4.

97. ‘Korse Meselesi’, HMG, No.15 (2 Cemaziyülevvel 1313/21 October 1895), pp.1–3; M. Hilmi, ‘Hanımlara Vesaya-yı Sıhhıye: Korsenin Mehaziri ve Mazarratı’, HMG, No.170 (2 Rebiyülevvel 1316/21 July 1898), pp.2–3; M. Hilmi, ‘Hanımlara Vesaya-yı Sıhhıye: Korsenin Mehaziri ve Mazarratı’, HMG, No.171 (9 Rebiyülevvel 1316/28 July 1898), pp.1–2; İsmet, ‘Korse Kullanmayınız’, HMG, No.357 (8 Muharrem 1320/17 April 1902), pp.1–2.

98. ‘Korse Meselesi’, pp.1–3.

99. P. Safa, Sözde Kızlar (Semih Lütfi Kitabevi, n.d.), p.38. I thank N. B. Criss for kindly providing this novel. See also Kandiyoti, ‘Slave Girls’.

100. Safa, Sözde Kızlar, p.38.

101. Pettman, ‘Boundary Politics’, p.189.