https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8623-4822
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Abstract
This article examines the transformation of Direklerarası Street, located on Istanbul’s historical Divanyolu, from the 1720s to the 1920s. Originally built in 1729 as an arasta to generate revenue for Ibrahim Pasha’s madrasa, it featured an innovative architectural style comprising rows of shops facing each other and colonnaded sidewalks. It served as a commercial and social centre for the Janissary Corps until their abolition in 1826. Around the 1860s, Direklerarası integrated into the entertainment and social milieu surrounding Beyazıt Square, particularly during the Ramadan months, and evolved into the primary promenade street of intramural Istanbul with the proliferation of literary cafés, teahouses, and theatres from the 1880s onwards. However, starting from the 1910s, changing socio-cultural and urban dynamics led to the decline of Direklerarası’s reputation and popularity. Conceptualizing Direklerarası as both a spatial entity and a reflection of the cultural dynamics of the late Ottoman capital, this article scrutinizes its transformation driven by social interactions, local entrepreneurship, and political interventions, focusing on spatial experiences, entertainment, spectacle, promenade culture, and clientele.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to the dedicated members of the research team, Onur Güneş Ayas, Izzet Tugay Tatlı, Mert Gezici and Cansu Kılıç for their valuable contributions. The authors would also like to extend their sincere appreciation to the anonymous peer reviewers whose invaluable contributions greatly enriched the quality of this manuscript.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest reported by the authors.
Notes
1 Lady Hornby, Constantinople during the Crimean War (London: Richard Bentley, 1863), p.332.
2 Arasta is a Turkish term for a street or row of shops (equivalent to a European shopping arcade). For the definition, see A. Petersen, Dictionary of Islamic Architecture (London and New York: Routledge, 1996), p.24. Many arastas such as Mısır Çarşısı Arastası, Sultanahmet Arastası, Karaman Arastası, Haffaflar Arastası were present in Ottoman Istanbul.
3 H. Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991); A. Yaşar, ‘Mekânın Tarihi’ [History of Space], in A. Şimşek (ed.), Tarih İçin Metodoloji [Historical Methodology] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2022), pp.309–16.
4 B. Kümin and C. Usborne (eds), ‘At Home and in the Workplace: A Historical Introduction to the Spatial Turn’, History & Theory, Vol.52/3 (2013), pp.305–18: https://doi.org/10.1111/hith.10671; F. Tunç Yaşar, ‘Yeni Kültür Tarihçiliği’ [New Cultural Historiography], in A. Şimşek (ed.), Tarih İçin Metodoloji (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2022), pp.317–27.
5 For a general evaluation of streets in historical studies, see Z. Çelik, D. Favro and R. Ingersoll (eds), Streets: Critical Perspectives on Public Space (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1994).
6 M. Cerasi, The Istanbul Divanyolu: A Case Study in Ottoman Urbanity and Architecture (Würzburg: Orient-Institut Istanbul, 2016).
7 E. Eldem, Voyvoda Street from Ottoman Times to Today (Istanbul: Osmanlı Bankası Arşiv ve Araştırma Merkezi & Tarih Vakfı, 1999); S. Seçmen and E. Süyük Makaklı, ‘The Urban and Architectural Characteristics of Voyvoda Street from Past to Present’, ICONARP International Journal of Architecture and Planning, Vol.9 (1) (2021), pp.1–24: https://doi.org/10.15320/ICONARP.2021.148.
8 A. N. Kartal, ‘Changes, Losses and Challenges on Transformation of the Urban Place: A Narrative on Istiklal Street, Istanbul from the 1900s until Today’, urbe. Revista Brasileira de Gestão Urbana, Vol.13 (2021), pp.1–17: https://doi.org/10.1590/2175-3369.013.e20190335.
9 Z. Çelik, ‘Urban Preservation as Theme Park: The Case of Soğukçeşme Street’, in Z. Çelik, D. Favro and R. Ingersoll (eds), Streets: Critical Perspectives on Public Space, pp.83-94.
10 The arasta is mentioned together with the name Şehzadebaşı in archival documents. In a kadi registry, dated 1740, it was referred to as ‘Arasta in the vicinity of Şehzâde Mosque’ (C. Yılmaz (ed.), İstanbul Kadı Sicilleri 69 Bab Mahkemesi 172 Numaralı Sicil [Istanbul Kadi Registers 69 Bab Court Registry No. 172], judgment 694, 24 May 1740 (Istanbul: Kültür AŞ, 2019), pp.519–20) while in another registry dated 1803, the name was clarified and recorded as ‘Şehzâdebaşı Arastası’ (C. Yılmaz (ed.), İstanbul Kadı Sicilleri 82 İstanbul Mahkemesi 78 Numaralı Sicil [Istanbul Kadi Registers 82 Bab Court Registry No. 78], judgment 650, 27 March 1803, (Istanbul: Kültür AŞ, 2019), p.555).
11 Cerasi, The Istanbul Divanyolu, pp.69–76.
12 The patronage of vizier initiatives and the military elite in the construction of the Ottoman capital dates back to the fifteenth century. What was new in the mid-seventeenth century was the concentration of these initiatives on Divanyolu, the main axis of the city. For earlier initiatives, see Ç. Kafesçioğlu, ‘Vizierial Undertakings in the Making of Ottoman Istanbul’, Art Turc: 10e Congrès international d’art turc (Geneva: Fondation Max Van Berchem, 1999), pp.409–13. On the development of Divanyolu and its symbolic meanings, see Cerasi, The Istanbul Divanyolu.
13 For the works belonging to the Ibrahim Pasha and Fatma Sultan Foundation and their patronage, see Ü. Araç, İktidar ve Sanat: Damat İbrahim Paşa’nın Hamiliği (1718–1730) [Power and Artistry: Damat Ibrahim Pasha’s Patronage (1718–1730)] (Istanbul: Vakıfbank Kültür Yayınları, 2023).
14 The opening class of the darülhadis was held on 22 May 1720 according to Silâhdar Mehmed Ağa (Silâhdâr Fındıklılı Mehmed Ağa, Nusretnâme: İnceleme-Metin, H.1106-1133/1695-1721 CE [Nusretnâme: Review – Text, 1695–1721 CE], M. Topal (ed.) (Ankara: TÜBA, 2018), p.1114), to Râşid Mehmed Efendi (Râşid Mehmed Efendi, Târîh-i Râşid ve Zeyli [History of Râşid and its Addendum], A. Özcan, Y. Uğur, B. Çakır et al. (eds) (Istanbul: Klasik Yayınları, 2013), pp.1195–196), it was carried out on 23 May 1720.
15 The building used today as a masjid was originally a classroom of the darülhadis madrasa and was converted into a mosque in 1763. E. Atak, ‘Nevşehirli Damat İbrâhim Paşa’nın Külliyeleri Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme’ [An Evaluation on the Complexes of Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha], Sanat Tarihi Dergisi, Vol. 31/2 (2022), p.983.
16 S. Eyice, ‘Damad İbrâhim Paşa Külliyesi’ [Damad Ibrâhim Pasha Complex], TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi, Vol. 8 (1993), p.444.
17 Kethüdazade el-Hac Mehmed Arif Efendi, Osmanlı Hayatından Kesitler: Menakıb-ı Kethüdazade [Scenes from Ottoman Life: Menakib-ı Kethüdazade] (Istanbul: İnsan Yayınları, 2007), p.165.
18 ‘Nedîmâ böyle tahrîr eyledi târîh-i itmâmın… Yapan bu cârsûyu cûd-ı İbrâhîm Pâşâ’dır 1141/1728-1729’. See A. Gölpınarlı, Nedîm Divanı (Istanbul: İnkılâp Kitapevi, 1951), pp.198–99. As a matter of fact, the existence of the arasta (45 shops on the Old Barracks side and 37 shops on the madrasa side) can be seen in the foundation dated H.1141/1729 CE belonging to Damat Ibrahim Pasha. For a reproduction of the endowment, see Başkanlık Osmanlı Arşivi (BOA). Yıldız Esas Evrakı (Y.EE.) 91/55, 24 December 1878.
19 For a study on Kauffer maps, see M. Pedley, ‘Enlightenment Cartography at the Sublime Porte: François Kauffer and the Survey of Constantinople’, Osmanlı Araştırmaları, Vol.39 (2012), pp.28–53.
20 M.K. Çeçen, II. Bayezid Suyolu Haritaları [Bayezid II Waterway Maps] (Istanbul: İSKİ Yayınları, 1997).
21 BOA. Bâb-ı Âsafî Divan-ı Hümayun Kalemi Defterleri (ADVN.d.) 837, 24 July 1793–11 August 1793.
22 The name fevziye would later influence the naming of a street (Fevziye Street) leading to Direklerarası and the name of perhaps the most famous literary café (Fevziye Kıraathanesi) situated on the corner of this street.
23 For these property exchanges, see BOA. İstanbul Ahkâm Defterleri (A.DVNS.AHK.İS.d.) 20/190/487, 16–25 June 1827; BOA. A.DVNS.AHK.İS.d. 20/192/489, 16–25 June 1827; BOA. A.DVNS.AHK.İS.d. 20/194/495, 4–13 August 1827; BOA. A.DVNS.AHK.İS.d. 20/195/496, 4–13 August 1827.
24 C. Kırlı, Sultan ve Kamuoyu: Osmanlı Modernleşme Sürecinde ‘Havadis Jurnalleri’ (1840–1844) [The Sultan and Public Opinion: ‘Havadis Journals’ in the Ottoman Modernization Process (1840–1844)] (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2009), p.266.
25 N. Yeşilkaya Gürallar, ‘From a Courtyard to a Square: Transformation of Beyazıt Meydanı in the Early Nineteenth Century İstanbul’, METU Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi, Vol.24/1 (2007), pp.71–92.
26 Ibid, pp.82–86.
27 G. Çelik, ‘Tanzimat Döneminde Tarihî Yarımada: Tercihler, Yaklaşımlar, Görünümler’ [The Historical Peninsula in the Tanzimat Period: Choices, Approaches, Appearances], TALİD-Türkiye Araştırmaları Literatür Dergisi, Vol.16 (2010), pp.227–58.
28 Ahmet Muhtar, İntak-ı Hak [The Word of Truth] (Istanbul: Hamit Matbaası, 1930), p.137.
29 Uşaklar Coffeehouse opened in Direklerarası in the second half of the nineteenth century and was frequented by those who wanted to work in the mansions in this area. R. Çavaş, ‘Direklerarası’, İstanbul Ansiklopedisi, Vol.3, pp.60–61.
30 ‘Arzu-yı Tadil’ [Desire for Amendment], İbret, Vol. 62 (27 November 1872), p.1.
31 [Namık Kemal], ‘Tefrika 4’ [Newspaper Series 4], Tasvir-i Efkâr, Vol. 455 (29 January 1867), pp.3–4. It was a medium-sized urban khan with 23 rooms. See A. Yaşar, ‘19. Yüzyıl Ortalarında İstanbul’da Hanlar: Mekânsal Bir Analiz’ [Urban Khans in Istanbul in the Middle of the 19th Century: A Spatial Analysis], Osmanlı Araştırmaları, Vol.61 (2023), p.203: https://doi.org/10.18589/oa.1316377. For the sociability and convivial dynamics of khan courtyards, see A. Yaşar, ‘A Convivial Space: the Urban Khan in Ottoman Istanbul from the Mid-Eighteenth to the Mid-Nineteenth Centuries’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.59:4 (2023), pp.539–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/00263206.2022.2097660.
32 BOA. Sadaret Mektubi Kalemi Nezaret ve Devair Evrakı (A.MKT.NZD.) 295/69 (16 November 1859).
33 BOA. A.MKT.NZD. 314/103 (12 June 1860).
34 According to Uğur Tanyeli, this street is the first linear transportation artery of the city. U. Tanyeli, Korku Metropolü İstanbul: 18. Yüzyıldan Bugüne [Istanbul, Metropolis of Horror: From the 18th Century to Today] (Istanbul: Metis Yayınları, 2022), p.121.
35 ‘Muhavere’ [Dialogue], Kevkeb-i Şarki, Vol. 14 (24 December 1869), pp.1–2.
36 ‘Şehzadebaşı Kezâ’ [Likewise Şehzadebaşı], Hayal, Vol. 117 (18 November 1874), p.3.
37 Çaylak, Vol. 149 (12 May 1877), pp.1–3.
38 Ahmed Rasim, ‘Eski Yeni Ramazanlar: Direklerarası Piyasası, Mehmed Efendi Kıraathanesi’ [Old New Ramadan: Direklerarası Promenade, Mehmed Efendi Literary Café], Ramazan, Vol. 8 (12 March 1927), p.2.
39 ‘Şehzadebaşı’ndan: Varaka’ [From Şehzadebaşı: Leaflet], Tercüman-ı Hakikat, Vol. 361 (28 August 1879), p.2.
40 It took place at the urban level in the form of widening roads, regulating cemeteries, opening squares, and lighting the streets. M. Gül, The Emergence of Modern Istanbul: Transformation and Modernisation of a City (London: IB Tauris, 2009), pp.40–71; Z. Çelik, The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1993).
41 See N. İleri, ‘Allure of the Light, Fear of the Dark: Nighttime Illumination, Spectacle and Order in Fin-de-Siécle Istanbul’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, Vol.37/2 (2017), pp.280–98. https://doi.org/10.1215/1089201x-4132905.
42 ‘İstanbul Havadisi’ [Istanbul News], Tercüman-ı Hakikat, Vol.540 (23 March 1880), p.1.
43 ‘Şehir Mektubu’ [City Letter], Malumat, Vol.236 (24 January 1898), pp.3–4.
44 Hukuk-ı Umumiye, Vol.19 (4 October 1908), p.3. For details, see İleri, p.280.
45 F. Georgean, Osmanlıdan Cumhuriyete İstanbul’da Ramazan [Ramadan in Istanbul from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic] (Istanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2018), p.118: F. Tunç Yaşar, ‘Direklerarası as the Stage of Entertainment and Sociability in Late Ottoman Istanbul’, in N. Karaca and S. Kula (eds), Spectacle, Entertainment, and Recreation in Late Ottoman and Early Turkish Republican Cities (Bristol: Intellect; Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2023), pp.123–46.
46 Mustafa Suad, İstanbul Rehberi [Istanbul Guide] (Istanbul, 1315/1897-1898), p.68.
47 Ercüment Ekrem and Münif Fehim, Dünden Hatıralar [Reminiscences from Yesterday] (Istanbul: Yedigün Neşriyatı), p.16.
48 D. Upton, ‘The Master Street of the World: The Levee’, in Z. Çelik, D. Favro and R. Ingersoll (eds), Streets: Critical Perspectives on Public Space (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1994), p.285.
49 S. Eyice, ‘Direklerarası’, TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi, Vol.9 (1994), pp.367–68.
50 This heat map was prepared based on texts published in newspapers such as Sabah, Tercüman-ı Hakikat, and Malumat between 1898-1903, focusing on the Direklerarası and its Ramadan entertainments. Prominent venues such as shops, theatres, teahouses, and coffeehouses were identified and their locations and popularity were then added to the map data using heat mapping methodology, utilizing data obtained from periodicals. Darker-coloured venues stand out more prominently in the periodicals, while lighter-coloured venues are less emphasized.
51 ‘İstanbul Postası’, Maarif, Vol.124 (7 December 1893), pp.306–07.
52 ‘Meşhudat ve Mesmuat-ı Ramazaniye’ [Things Seen and Heard about Ramadan], Sabah, Vol.3289 (18 January 1899), pp.1–2.
53 ‘Meşhudat ve Mesmuat-ı Ramazaniye’ [Things Seen and Heard about Ramadan], Sabah, Vol.3287 (16 January 1899), pp.1–2.
54 Recaizade Mahmut Ekrem, Araba Sevdası, p.192.
55 On the etymology of the two concepts and their meanings in the historical process, see Ç. Kafesçioğlu, ‘Picturing the Square, Streets, and Denizens of Early Modern Istanbul: Practices of Urban Space and Shifts in Visuality’, Muqarnas, Vol.37/1 (2020), pp.139–77.
56 F. Devellioğlu, ‘Seyr’, Osmanlıca-Türkçe Ansiklopedik Lügat (Istanbul: İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2023), p.755.
57 ‘Temaşa’, Redhouse, p.134.
58 Franciscus à Mesgnien Meninski, Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalium Turcicae - Arabico - Persicum Lexicon, Vol.1 (1680), p.1380.
59 For a detailed discussion of these concepts, see Kafesçioğlu, ‘Picturing the Square’, p.24.
60 O.G. Ayas, ‘Direklerarası Müzik Sahnesi ve İncesaz Takımları: Müzisyenler, Repertuar, Dinleyiciler ve Beğeni Yapısı’ [Direklerarası Music Scene and İncesaz Ensembles: Musicians, Repertoire, Audience and Taste Structure], Türkiyat Mecmuası, Vol.33/2 (2023), pp.641–79: https://doi.org/10.26650/iuturkiyat.1368893.
61 Y. Nagata and H. Egawa, Osmanlı’nın Son Döneminde Tiyatro ve Çevresi [Theatre and its Surroundings in the Late Ottoman World] (Istanbul: Dergah Yayınları, 2021).
62 M. And, Başlangıcından 1983’e Türk Tiyatro Tarihi [History of Turkish Theatre from the Beginning to 1983] (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2014), p.89.
63 Aksel means theatre companies, not buildings. Despite Direklerarası’s growing involvement in theatre from the 1880s, a masonry theatre building was only established with the Ferah Theatre in 1903. Performances by theatre companies often took place in coffeehouses or shabby (salaş) structures behind the shops along Direklerarası. For shabby theatre structures, see O. Şenyurt, ‘Geç Osmanlı’da Tiyatroya Tepkilerin Gölgesinde Şehzadebaşı’nda Kâgir Tiyatro Binalarının İnşa Süreci’ [In the Shadow of Reactions to the Theatre in the Late Ottoman Construction Process of Masonry Theatre Buildings in Şehzadebaşı], Uluslararası Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi, Vol.7/1 (2023), pp.27–56: https://doi.org/10.47088/utad.1286874.
64 M. Aksel, İstanbul’un Ortası [The Middle of Istanbul] (Istanbul: Kapı Yayınları, 2019), p.4. For the child audiences at Direklerarası see F. Tunç Yaşar and O.G. Ayas, ‘Early Acquaintances with Modern Mass Culture in Late Ottoman Istanbul: The Experiences of Child Audiences at Direklerarası’, Sociology Lens, Vol.37/1 (2024), pp.8–27: https://doi.org/10.1111/johs.12447.
65 Avanzâde Mehmed Süleyman, ‘Ramazan Geceleri’ [Ramadan Nights], Maarif, Vol.34 (4 April 1892), p.126.
66 H. Taner, ‘Direklerarası, Ramazan Takvimi 2’ [Direklerarası, Ramadan Calendar 2], Milliyet (18 July 1980).
67 ‘Ramazan Muhabirimiz’ [Our Ramadan Reporter], Tercüman-ı Hakikat, Vol. 4134, (/16 April 1892), p.2.
68 Ahmed İhsan, ‘İstanbul Postası’ [Istanbul Post], Servet-i Fünun, Vol. 411 (26 January 1899), p.322.
69 BOA. A.MKT.NZD. 295/69 (16 November 1859). For the teahouses’ contribution to the popularity of Direklerarası, see K. Kuzucu, Bin Yılın Çayı: Osmanlı’da Çay ve Çayhane Kültürü [Tea of a Thousand Years: Tea and Teahouse Culture in the Ottoman World] (Istanbul: Kapı Yayınları, 2012), pp.400–17.
70 BOA. Dahiliye Emniyet-i Umumiye Tahrirat Kalemi Evrakı (DH.EUM.THR.) 9/17 (23 October 1909).
71 A.D., ‘Musahabe-i Ramazaniye’ [Ramadan Talks], Tasvir-i Efkar, Vol. 122 (30 September 1909), p.5.
72 ‘Muharrerat-ı Varide: Şehzadebaşı’ndan’ [Correspondence: From Şehzadebaşı], Servet Malumat, Vol. 430–65 (19 August 1899), pp.2–3.
73 R.C. Cervati, ‘Rue de İstanbul: Direklerarası’ [Streets of Istanbul: Direklerarası], Annuaire Oriental (ancien indicateur oriental) du Commerce de l’industrie, de l’Administration et de la Magistrature [Annuaire Oriental (formerly the Oriental Directory) of Commerce, Industry, Administration, and the Judiciary] (Istanbul: The Annuaire Oriental and Printing Company Limited, 1901), p.1064–65.
74 T. Anar, Mekândan Taşan Edebiyat: Yeni Türk Edebiyatında Edebiyat Mahfilleri [Literature Overflowing from Space: Literary Spaces in New Turkish Literature] (Istanbul: Ketebe Yayınları, 2020), pp.374–79 and 382–83.
75 Safai, ‘Vekayi-i Ramazaniyye’ [Ramadan Events], Tercümân-ı Hakikat, Vol.7416 (15 December 1901), p.3.
76 Mehmed Asaf, ‘Şehir Mektubu’ [City Letter], Cingöz, Vol.6 (2 October 1908), pp.2–3.
77 Ş. Mardin, ‘Super Westernization in Urban Life in the Ottoman Empire in the Last Quarter of the Nineteenth Century’, in B. Peter, E. Tümertekin and F. Mansur (eds), Turkey: Geographic and Social Perspectives (Leiden: Brill, 1974), pp.403–46; M. Hafez, Inventing Laziness: The Culture of Productivity in Late Ottoman Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021), pp.147–93; F. Tunç Yaşar, ‘Encountering the Age of Civility: The Late Ottoman Etiquette Literature (1890–1918)’, Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, Vol.24/6 (2022), pp.937–53.
78 ‘Ramazan Muhabirimizin Varakası’ [Leaflet of our Ramadan Reporter], Tercüman-ı Hakikat, Vol.2395 (9 June 1886), pp.2–3.
79 ‘Direklerarası’nda Köy Mektupçusu’ [The Village Letterman in Direklerarası], Malumat, Vol.166 (5 January 1899), p.935.
80 H.F. Ozansoy, Eski İstanbul Ramazanları [Old Istanbul Ramadan] (Istanbul: İnkılâp ve Aka Kitabevleri, 1968), pp.53–54.
81 A.F, ‘Mektub-i Mahsus Ramazan Muhabirimizden: Direklerarası’ [Special Letter from our Ramadan Reporter: Direklerarası], Tercüman-ı Hakikat, Vol.2690 (27 May 1887), p.3.
82 Ahmet Rasim, Şehir Mektupları [City Letters] (Istanbul: Oğlak Yayınları, 2018), p.103.
83 ‘Ramazan Muhabiri’ [Ramadan Reporter], Tercüman-ı Hakikat, Vol.4125 (7 April 1892), p.2.
84 ‘Seyyar Muhabir Mahsusumuzdan Şehir Mektubu’ [City Letter from our Travelling Reporter], Malumat, Vol.70 (18 February 1897), p.449.
85 Ahmet Rasim, Şehir Mektupları, p.99.
86 Ahmed İhsan, ‘İstanbul Postası’, Servet-i Fünun Dergisi, Vol.511 (27 December 1900), pp.259–60.
87 A. Mazhar, ‘Ramazan Mektubu’ [Ramadan Letter], Geveze, Vol.52 (5 October 1908), pp.2–4.
88 N. Yazıcı, ‘Ramazan Tenbihnameleri’ [Ramadan Regulations], AÜİFD, Vol.46/2 (2005), pp.1–11.
89 BOA. Sadaret Mektubi Mühimme Kalemi Evrakı (A.MKT.MHM.) 70/40 (19 May 1855).
90 ‘Tembihat ve İhtarat’ [Warnings], Takvim-i Vekayi, Vol.1033 (20 December 1868), pp.1–2.
91 ‘Bir Varakadır: Muhavere’ [Leaflet: Conversation], Kevkeb-i Şarki, Vol.12 (22 December 1869), p.2.
92 Ibid.
93 ‘Şehir Mektubu, 39’, Basîret, Vol.524 (18 November 1871), pp.2-3; ‘Şehir Mektubu, 40’, Basîret, Vol.530 (26 November 1871), p.3; ‘Şehir Mektubu, 3’, Basîret, Vol.773 (8 November 1872), pp.1–2.
94 M. Erol, ‘Surveillance, Urban Governance and Legitimacy in Late Ottoman Istanbul: Spying on Music and Entertainment during the Hamidian Regime (1876–1909)’, Urban History, 40/4 (2013), p.716: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0963926813000187.
95 BOA. Yıldız Perakende Evrakı Başkitabet Dairesi Maruzatı (Y.PRK.BŞK.) 8/71 (22 June 1884).
96 Saadet, Vol. 432 (8 June 1886), p.2.
97 BOA. İrade Dahiliye (İ.DH.) 1082/84868 (19 May 1888).
98 BOA. Yıldız Perakende Evrakı Tahrirat-ı Ecnebiye ve Mabeyn Mütercimliği (Y.PRK.TKM.) 34/25 (3 March 1895).
99 ‘İstanbul Postası’, Maarif, Vol.124 (7 December 1893), pp.306–07.
100 ‘Yasak’ [Forbidden], Şura-ı Ümmet, Vol.43 (21 December 1903), p.1.
101 ‘Leyal-i Ramazan’ [Ramadan Nights], Sabah, Vol.5069 (4 December 1903), p.2.
102 ‘Direklerarası’nda Hânımların Otomobille Gece Piyasası’ [Ladies’ Night Promenade in Direklerarası by Car], Sırat-ı Müstakim, Vol.106 (16 September 1910), pp.26–28.
103 Ozansoy, Eski İstanbul Ramazanları, p.19.
104 Hafez, Inventing Laziness, p.30.
105 R. N, ‘Ramazan ve Direklerarası’ [Ramadan and Direklerarası], Ramazan, Vol.8 (23 September 1909), p.2.
106 Accidents caused by carriage drivers are frequently reported in the newspapers. In Ramadan 1904, Mrs Hasibe died as a result of being hit by one of these horse-drawn carriages. ‘Fait-Divers: Accident’, Stamboul, Vol.279 (24 November 1904), p.2; A.Ş, ‘Direklerarası’, Alemdar, Vol.29 (5 September 1911), p.3.
107 Ercüment Ekrem (Talu), ‘Ramazan Musahabeleri 3: Şehzadebaşı’ [Ramadan Conversations 3: Şehzadebaşı], İkdam, Vol.8679 (12 May 1921), p.3.
108 ‘Kadınlar Piyasası’ [Women Promenade], Karagöz, Vol.1575 (21 April 1923), p.3.
109 ‘Tebliğ-i Hususi: Çapkınlığın Edebi, Erkanı!’ [Private Notice: The Manners of Flirting], Karagöz, Vol.1581 (12 May 1923), p.4; ‘Monolog: Sokak Maceraları’ [Monologue: Street Adventures], Karagöz, Vol.188 (24 March 1926), p.3.
110 R.H. Karay, Üç Nesil Üç Hayat [Three Generations Three Lives] (Istanbul: İnkılâp Kitabevi, 2009), p.137.
111 V.N., ‘Ortaoyunu ve Kahvede Kadın’ [Ortaoyunu and Women in Coffeehouses], Akşam, Vol.4068 (7 February 1930), p.3.
112 H.Y. Şehsuvaroğlu, ‘İstanbul Ramazanları’ [Istanbul Ramadans] in Asırlar Boyunca İstanbul: Eserleri, Olayları, Kültürü [Istanbul through the Centuries: Works, Events, Cultures] (Istanbul: Cumhuriyet Gazetesi, 1953), p.67.
113 C. Doğan, Öteki Modernleşme [The Other Modernization] (Istanbul: Kitabevi, 2021), p.128.