Mātauranga Māori driving innovation in the New Zealand scampi fishery

ABSTRACT

Motivation to improve commercial fishing technology is changing from ‘how can we catch more fish’ to ‘how can we reduce the impact of fishing on the environment’. To implement new fisheries technologies and innovations, it is important to have sources of innovative ideas for improvement, and processes to allow the uptake and transition from old to new technologies. One fishery that is undergoing a technology transition is the New Zealand scampi (Metanephrops challengeri) fishery. Here we report on a research programme aimed at improving the cultural and environmental performance of scampi fishing practices, initiated by the Māori-owned Waikawa Fishing Company, and underpinned by Mātauranga Māori and values inherent in kaitiakitanga. This paper provides a case study for how Mātauranga Māori and western science can engage in a fisheries technology transition through a transdisciplinary research programme.

KEYWORDS:

• Fisheries science
• aquaculture
• transdisciplinary
• Mātauranga Māori
• transition theory

Introduction

Fishing is an ancient art, and archaeological evidence suggests that humans first started fishing with barbed hooks around 90,000 years ago (Yellen et al. 1995). For the majority of these 90,000 years, advancements in fishing technology have focused on catching more fish, more efficiently (Kennelly and Broadhurst 2002). Trawling, pulling a net through the water behind one or more boats, is considered the pinnacle of this style of highly efficient fishing, in which the majority of fish and other sea creatures in front of the net are caught (Pitcher and Pauly 1998). As these more efficient fishing methods became more prevalent, concerns about overfishing and the unintended impacts of trawl fishing technologies were voiced as early as the start of the 20^th century (Walsh et al. 2002; ICES 2012). In addition to overfishing being the leading environmental and socio-economic problem within the marine environment (Worm et al. 2009), there is growing evidence for the negative impacts of overfishing on indigenous communities (Turner et al. 2012; McCarthy et al. 2014; Stephenson et al. 2014). For example, in New Zealand the decline of marine taonga (treasured) species is associated with a loss of Māori cultural identity and values (Turner et al. 2012; McCarthy et al. 2014). Due to these impacts, there is a growing recognition of the importance of incorporating indigenous knowledge alongside science to develop co-management strategies for natural resources that enhance the resilience of these social-ecological systems (Huntington et al. 2004; Moller et al. 2004; Huntington 2011; Butler et al. 2012).

Indigenous knowledge systems, often referred to by the blanket term Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), are most commonly defined as a cumulative body of knowledge, practices, and beliefs, about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with the environment (Berkes 2008). Such transmission has benefited coastal indigenous peoples with in-depth historical knowledge and an often-holistic perspective and appreciation for the marine environment (Dudgeon and Berkes 2003; Menzies 2006; McCarthy et al. 2014). While the incorporation of TEK is recognised as a useful tool for improving contemporary fisheries management (Butler et al. 2012; Stephenson et al. 2014), there is further opportunity for TEK to help drive innovation and technological change so that fishing practices fall more in line with local TEK values (Chambers 2012). However, the ability for new technologies to reduce the environmental and cultural impacts of fishing practices is dependent on widespread uptake of these technological innovations by industry (Suuronen et al. 2012).

Transition theory for fisheries technology innovation

How technologies arise and become mainstreamed in an industry is referred to as a socio-technical transition (Geels and Schot 2007), and typically occur at three different levels (fishing industry examples in parenthesis): landscape (societal), regime (government) and niche (industry/fishers) (Figure 1). How these levels fit together and influence each other is key to a successful socio-technical transition and is described using multi-level perspective (MLP) theory (Haasnoot et al. 2016). First, there must be a desire to transition or change the fishery, this occurs at landscape level and will likely include an awareness of the impact of the fishery, a crisis (e.g. fisheries collapse), market demand or a desire to look after the fishery for future generations (Tindall et al. 2012). This desire then drives either the stakeholders at the niche level, or the regulators at the regime level to look to ways to transition the fishery to align it to landscape level desires. However, most successful transitions are stakeholder led (niche level), for example the collaborative, industry-led initiative Fishing into the Future, and the Parties to the Nauru Agreement (Teleki 2017). Niche level actors are critical to the development of the technology as it is at this level where learning, trialling, and testing of innovations occurs (Hermans et al. 2013). However, these niche actors need regulatory support to enable emerging technologies to be widely adopted (Haasnoot et al. 2016). This support is provided at the regime level by institutions (such as government agencies) and actors that provide a legislative or regulatory framework to support the development and uptake of the technology. Therefore, these transitions require actors from, and the ability to, work across a range of societal groups and disciplines.

Figure 1. Schematic explanation of the multi-level perspective (MLP) of transition theory framework. A, Landscape level (societal) developments exert pressure and influence regime and niche levels; B, regime level (New Zealand Government) consists of a network of actors and institutions that share a set of regulative, normative, and cognitive rules. C, Multiple innovations are developed at the niche level (fishing industry) by niche actors (Waikawa Fishing Company) in combination with regime actors (Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment). D, Innovations emerge that challenge the regime and start a process of realignment between the niche and regime level. E, Regime is destabilized by the landscape level creating an opportunity for innovations to break through. F, If the niche innovation successfully aligns with the regime level, then an opportunity for new regime configuration emerges (from Haasnoot et al. 2016, with permission from Oxford University Press).

Successful socio-technical transitions to new fisheries technology are not easy. They require balancing social, cultural, economic and environmental objectives as well as including input and agreement from a wide range of societal and technical groups (Haasnoot et al. 2016). These transitions are examples of transdisciplinary problems, and an understanding of transdisciplinary research process (Figure 2) is required to bridge the gap between problem solving and scientific innovation to ensure the outputs of the research are solution-oriented and viable (Lang et al. 2012). While the notion of transdisciplinarity is particularly suited to supporting sustainability projects with a wide range of actors, there is no one common definition of transdisciplinarity (Stock and Burton 2011; Jahn et al. 2012). It does, however, seem accepted that transdisciplinary collaborations involve discussions that integrate the experience and worldviews of researchers and other stakeholder groups (e.g. land managers, policymakers, local communities, indigenous communities) (Stock and Burton 2011; Allen et al. 2014). Importantly, these integrated approaches go further than interdisciplinarity – which tends to predominantly recognise and link across traditional science disciplines. Transdisciplinary collaborations work across different knowledge systems and cultures, including the incorporation of TEK. They commonly seek to establish priorities and then foster research that helps different parties move towards commonly sought outcomes, while creating new knowledge and understanding (Allen et al. 2011).

Figure 2. Different types of science-driven initiatives and engagement likely to be required within an applied transdisciplinary research programme. Modified from Allen et al. (2014).

One unique aspect of fishing and science in New Zealand is the incorporation of mātauranga Māori into these sectors (Treaty of Waitangi (Fisheries Claims) Settlement Act 1992; MBIE 2018). For the purposes of the present paper, mātauranga Māori is defined as knowledge, understanding, and wisdom that comes from a Māori worldview. Central to mātauranga Māori is a kinship and connection between people and environment. This worldview is closely related to current global environmental values which are driving innovations in fisheries science and the transitions towards lower impact and more fuel efficient (LIFE) fishing methods (Suuronen et al. 2012), collaborations and outcomes (Allen et al. 2014). Therefore, in New Zealand, for fisheries that are attempting to transition to more sustainable methods, incorporating mātauranga Māori across the MLP framework could help provide shared direction for a transdisciplinary team (Lang et al. 2012)

Mātauranga Māori and the marine environment

Māori have an intrinsic and longstanding association with the marine environment. Fishing has been a significant aspect of Māori life serving as both a practical and spiritual activity for over 800 years (Wehi et al. 2013), with Māori fishing traditions, stories, knowledge and skills having been passed down through generations, contributing to and shaping mātauranga Māori (Leach 2006). For Māui, one of the earliest and greatest Māori fishing exponents, fishing was relatively simple. He put his hook into the sea and pulled up the mighty Ika-ā-Māui (Fish of Māui) which was later to become the North Island of New Zealand. In contrast, European settlement of Aotearoa New Zealand in the nineteenth century and the subsequent introduction of Western fisheries management regimes and regulations has seen fishing become an increasingly complex process over time. Partly in response to these complexities, mātauranga Māori of the marine environment has also evolved over time into many contemporary forms that are complementary to western scientific knowledge (Harmsworth and Awatere 2013). The view of mātauranga Māori as a dynamic and evolving knowledge form while still adhering to traditional values, is one that is shared by recent Māori authors (Harmsworth 1997; Durie 1998; Harmsworth 2002; Morgan 2006; Awatere et al. 2011; Harmsworth et al. 2011). The bridging of different knowledge systems through a transdisciplinary approach, in this case the integration of mātauranga Māori and western science, has been shown to improve the success of research and management (Moller et al. 2004; Stephenson et al. 2014).

The acquisition of new knowledge while adhering to the principals of Māori world views are helping shape mātauranga Māori in the modern world including the fishing industry. Mātauranga Māori interacts across the three levels of MLP to engage with the fisheries transitions, as it provides a drive for change and perceived benefits of change at the landscape level, and it provides tools for change and enables change at the regime and niche levels. A driver of change as observed by a number of fishers is securing fisheries resources for the next generation (Tindall et al. 2012). This universal principal is articulated in Māori culture as kaitiakitanga; the guardianship by Tangata Whenua (people of the land) of an area in accordance with tikanga Māori (Māori customs and protocols). At the regime level, Crown institutions have a legislated imperative to include Māori values and kaitiakitanga in New Zealand’s natural resource management because of Treaty of Waitangi obligations (Memon and Kirk 2010a, 2010b, 2011, 2012). Lastly at the niche level, actors interact, share and cogitate over their ideas, creating their own norms, discourses, practices, and social networks. Niche operators have the important role of having local knowledge, and we contend that indigenous knowledge systems, including mātauranga Māori, have an important and hitherto understated part to play.

Scope of the present paper

This paper provides a case study of how mātauranga Māori can be engaged in a fisheries technology transition across the levels of MLP. The case study is a transdisciplinary research programme focused on improving the performance of the New Zealand scampi fishery, using alternative fishing methods and aquaculture. Within this context this paper:

1. Outlines the process of achieving transdisciplinarity through collaboration of mātauranga Māori values and science.

2. Describes the themes of the programme, aimed at improving scampi fishing practices so that they fall more in line with kaitiakitanga and support the potential initiation of a fisheries technology transition.

3. Discusses how mātauranga Māori is a driver of change within the context of MLP theory.

CASE STUDY: Mātauranga Māori driving technological change in the New Zealand scampi fishery

One fishery in which a gear transition has been suggested is the New Zealand scampi (Metanephrops challengeri) trawl fishery. New Zealand scampi is a commercially valuable lobster species that lives in depths of 200–600 m around much of the New Zealand coast (Bell et al. 2013; MPI 2013). Scampi are the target of a deep sea benthic trawl fishery which has an annual catch quota of 1191 t and generates an estimated NZ$34 million a year of sales (MPI 2016, 2018). The current scampi trawl practice presents a number of challenges to the environment including damage to the seabed (Cryer et al. 2002; Thrush and Dayton 2002), capture of marine mammals (Baird 2005; Robertson and Chilvers 2011), seabirds (Rowe 2010), and high levels of non-target fish bycatch (Hartill et al. 2006; Ballara and Anderson 2009). These environmental challenges provide some impetus for a technological transition to more selective fishing technology.

The Waikawa Fishing Company (WFC), who have been commercially trawling for scampi since 2009, recognise the need for a technological transition. In relation to MLP theory, WFC are an example of a niche operator within the scampi industry. WFC are owned and operated by a Māori family that has whakapapa (genealogical lineage) to Te Tau Ihu o Te Waka (the northern-most part of the South Island) and has been fishing this part of New Zealand for many generations. Over the last 35 years, the company has become aware that some of the negative environmental impacts of scampi trawling run counter to their kaitiakitanga responsibilities of sound environmental stewardship. In conventional strategic niche management theory, regulations or other normative rules would encourage niche actors such as WFC to experiment without being subject to conventional economic norms or practices (Schot and Geels 2008). However, for WFC, rather than social and political processes enabling their ability to innovate, it is their kaitiakitanga which drives them to experiment, innovate and learn, while basing the success of these innovations on wider criteria than economic performance alone.

This awareness inspired WFC to collaborate with the Cawthron Institute, (New Zealand’s largest independent science organisation, specialising in marine, aquaculture, biosecurity, and freshwater science), and develop a transdisciplinary research programme incorporating Zebra-Tech Ltd and Auckland University. This led to an NZ government-funded research programme ‘Ka Hao te Rangatahi: Revolutionary Potting Technologies and Aquaculture for Scampi’. This collaboration between a Māori-owned fishing company, two science providers, and an engineering firm is an example of an applied, and transdisciplinary project, incorporating multiple knowledge systems to achieve a shared goal.

The road to transdisciplinarity

What eventually led to a working relationship and sharing of ideas and values between a Māori whānau-owned fishing company and scientists took several years, patience and trust to establish. This relationship was developed when members from both the Cawthron research team and the WFC whānau, first began working together on Ngā Kaihautū Tikanga Taiao, an advisory panel to the then Environmental Risk Management Authority. During this time a degree of friendship and trust was developed between these individuals that led to meetings between Cawthron and the operating personnel at WFC. This relationship developed as WFC invited an increasing number of other Cawthron scientists to a series of face-to-face meetings to discuss potentially improved methods over trawl fishing and WFC’s understanding of katiakitanga, a concept which resonated with the invited scientists. WFC were interested in finding ways to expand on their Mātauranga around the use of pots with the aim of identifying alternative methods to trawl fishing, that sat more in line with kaitiaki values. Tāruke (pots) and hīnaki (traps) have been used by Māori to catch fish for many generations (Meredith 2006). As such, WFC have drawn inspiration from these practices and developed their own knowledge of how to pot for fish from many years of experience capturing crayfish, and a range of other fish species. WFC saw a need to incorporate science to help test, validate and compliment their knowledge to better target chosen fish species, and to reduce bycatch.

Two precursor studies to the scampi research programme, co-designed by WFC and the Cawthron Institute, investigated the development of finfish potting operations (Ogilvie et al. 2010; Chambers 2012; Ogilvie et al. 2012). These studies identified that the key factor for fishing success was the intricate knowledge held by the skippers regarding fish behaviour, best times to fish, where to place pots with respect to specific habitat types, and differences in key pot design features (mesh types, and structural features). A robust sampling method allowed for the relative success of pot designs to be quantified. These precursor studies enabled the successful integration of knowledge from both kaitiaki and researchers. From there a series of successful funding applications allowed a team from Cawthron and WFC, and later the University of Auckland and Zebra-Tech Ltd, to undertake research investigating alternatives to trawling in the scampi industry.

Development of research themes

The team identified three gear innovation themes suitable for investigation: (1) The development of a potting system as an alternative to trawling; (2) Identifying bait types for pots to enhance scampi catch and reduce bycatch; and (3) Developing a scampi aquaculture industry from broodstock females that would otherwise go to market. Each of these themes were chosen based on the fisheries experience from WFC, scientific expertise from Cawthron and the University of Auckland, and are grounded in mātauranga Māori.

Development of a potting system as an alternative to trawling

Potting is widely used for harvesting Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus) in Europe, a species that shares many biological and ecological similarities with scampi (Bell et al. 2013), therefore the first step was to trial European pots to target New Zealand scampi. Four different pot designs were selected, and fishing experiments were conducted in two areas where WFC routinely trawl for scampi (for specific methods see Major et al. (2017b). The subsequent development of scampi specific pot designs drew largely from the results of these fisheries experiments, the knowledge and experience WFC has from designing crayfish pots, and experimental laboratory work investigating the behaviour of scampi with different pot designs. These experiments focused on how scampi interact with various components of traps (e.g. entrance slope, entrance width and height) and informed the preliminary pot designs.

Even with the right pots and baits, much of the success in fishing pots is reliant on deploying the pots in the right place. Variations in the success of fishing due to location can occur at both regional (large scale) and habitat (fine scale) scales (Chambers 2012). Habitat scales are much harder to define and are affected by variations in the benthic features and substrate type, influencing the distributions of the target species (Miller 1990). Therefore, making decisions about where to fish the pots is heavily reliant on the knowledge and experience of the skippers. The scampi project is in the preliminary stages of addressing this by combining modern sonar technology and deep sea cameras with the experience and knowledge WFC have surrounding the scampi fisheries. The cameras will observe scampi in their habitat at fine scales, allowing them to be integrated with the sonar readings of the benthic structure, potentially allowing fishers to identify areas of higher scampi abundance.

Identifying bait types to enhance scampi catch

Pots are a passive method of fishing, the target species need to be attracted to and into the pot using baits or other methods such as lures (Miller 1990). Baits and chums are usually chosen after many years of trial and error. However, bait choice may be accelerated when the processes of chemoattraction and feeding behaviour are properly understood in the context of the individual species (Atema 1980). The present project built on WFCs knowledge of potting for crayfish, by using squid to avoid certain bycatch species and fish-heads to prolong bait duration in pots. Concurrently, aspects of the chemoattraction, such as specific scampi foraging phases (Major et al. 2017a), the effect of turbulence on the efficiency of food search behaviour (Major and Jeffs 2017) and the attractiveness of a range of different baits to scampi were investigated using a series of bioassays (Major and Jeffs 2018).

Developing a scampi aquaculture industry

Aquaculture was developed as a research theme due to concerns related to the status of the scampi stocks and future access to fisheries research. In New Zealand all commercial fisheries resources are managed, and access is regulated by the Quota Management System (QMS). As a consequence, WFC and other small whanau/iwi companies do not always have explicit access to the fisheries resources that they catch (Memon and Kirk 2011; Bodwitch 2017). Aquaculture can potentially offer a way to use current access to fisheries resources while reducing the reliance on quota. By retaining broodstock animals that would otherwise be sent to market, and using them for aquaculture research, WFC are potentially safeguarding access to these resources for future generations.

Female scampi carry fertilised eggs under their tails for an extended period of time resulting in an advanced zoea hatching which have a short pelagic duration before settling into post-larval scampi. To assess the aquaculture potential for scampi, these gravid (egg carrying) female scampi (provided by WFC) were kept in a recirculating aquaculture system at the Cawthron Aquaculture Park. As scampi have never been reared in captivity, the aquaculture system was designed to mimic their natural environment. This included chilling and maintaining water at 10.5 °C, ensuring that scampi were kept under infrared light (to reduce overexposure to white light and subsequent eye damage), and providing a substrate type that closely matched that of their natural habitat. Additionally, custom holding tanks were designed to reduce the chances of aggression and cannibalism. Within this facility research has focused on aspects of their reproductive biology, larval development, and size at maturity (see McCarthy et al. (2018) for specific methodology related to size at maturity). A new body of knowledge has developed, with the current pinnacle being an 18-month-old individual that hatched from a brooding female in the facility. Information generated on growing conditions, food types needed for each growth stage, and methods for disease management is all new to science.

Mātauranga Māori – a driver for change

In the New Zealand scampi research example given here, mātauranga Māori (more specifically kaitiakitanga) was the underpinning drive to enhance the environmental performance of the fishery. Shared research direction has been shown to be key to the success of transdisciplinary research programmes enabling them to achieve the goal of a shared solution (Lang et al. 2012; Allen et al. 2014). In the context of MLP theory, to achieve the goal of a socio-technical transition, mātauranga Māori provided the drive for a niche actor (WFC) and a transdisciplinary team to form a research programme which was funded out of central government by MBIE. This highlights the importance of integrating different knowledge systems to shape the research agenda, produce knowledge, and develop innovations to achieve sustainability goals (Leventon et al. 2016).

As other case studies of transdisciplinary work remind us, successful integration of different disciplinary perspectives, knowledge systems and cultures is not just a matter of bringing people together. The researchers involved with this programme have learnt that for these collaborations to work, an investment of time and intent is required to build a culture of trust and respect between the different parties involved. Time is necessary so those involved can begin to understand and appreciate novel concepts, and to develop the friendship and collegiality required for such transdisciplinary endeavours (Allen et al. 2011).

In terms of improving our understanding of transdisciplinary practice it is important that teams working in this way actively look to bridge communication gaps that can be problematic such as between indigenous and western science knowledge and cultural systems. The development and uptake of new fisheries technologies can benefit from an understanding of MLP theory and from a transdisciplinary approach to integrate the three levels within the theory. In New Zealand there is inherent value in incorporating mātauranga Māori into transdisciplinary programmes as it can act as a change driver at the landscape level, provide tools for change at the regime level and power motivation for change from actors at the niche level.

In the New Zealand scampi fishery, mātauranga Māori not only offered the underpinning drive for a new programme of research but was also used to develop and frame the research questions and approaches. This research focused on developing new fisheries technology, but also generated new knowledge about the ecology and life history of scampi through behavioural, chemosensory, and aquaculture research. This highlights how transdisciplinarity can achieve Western science goals while also progressing towards a shared solution for sustainability problems.

Mātauranga Māori teamed up in a transdisciplinary manner with other knowledge systems has the potential to drive fisheries gear transitions, enhance our understanding of aquatic ecosystems, and provide a more holistic perspective for research and management of natural resources. Looking to the future, there is significant potential to extend this transdisciplinary approach to other fish species to shape better management of New Zealand’s fisheries resources.

Acknowledgements

This study is part of ‘Ka Hao te Rangatahi: Revolutionary Potting Technologies and Aquaculture for Scampi’ (CAWX1316) funded by the New Zealand Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment. The authors kindly acknowledge the additional support of other members of Waikawa Fishing Company Ltd (Christine Connor, Amber-Louise Connor, Lance Connor), Zebra-Tech Ltd (especially John Radford), and to the Scampi Team at the Cawthron Institute (Karen Middlemiss, Joanne Copello, Jeff Golding, Robert Matheson and Michael Scott). The transport and holding of the scampi, as well as the experimental procedures, were approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of the Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology (AEC2014-CAW-02).

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

ORCID

Shaun Ogilvie http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1664-2588

Robert Major http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5408-6637

Alaric McCarthy http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3849-1442

David Taylor http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5653-3330

Andrew Jeffs http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8504-1949

Kevin Heasman http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1928-9978

Chris Batstone http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3584-8530

Benita Chambers http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5813-4584

Will Allen http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2569-6484

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by Ministry for Business Innovation and Employment [grant number CAWX1316].