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Articles

The rivalry of the French and American educational missions during the Vietnam War

Pages 27-41 | Received 27 Sep 2013, Accepted 03 Dec 2013, Published online: 01 Apr 2014
 

Abstract

From 1955 to 1975, the French and the Americans were both active in the educational field in South Vietnam, but their objectives were different. The French were concerned with preserving their influence with the Vietnamese elites and relied on the Mission Culturelle – the heir of the colonial Direction of Education – and its prestigious high schools. The Americans wanted to improve the level of education of the population and strived to reform the Vietnamese administration in order to make South Vietnam a nation strong enough to bar the advance of communism. The main operator was USAID, which coordinated and funded the activities of expert teams, and particularly of academic missions. The French deeply resented the American intrusion into what they believed to be their historical area of cultural influence, and they perceived the United States as aggressive towards them. The Americans did not oppose the French cultural presence but they did try to eliminate those parts of the French legacy – particularly the teaching methods and the administrative structures – that they considered to be obsolete and an obstacle to their reforms. The battle between those two cultural traditions was waged by their Vietnamese supporters, with long-time Francophiles on one side and US-trained educators and administrators on the other. However, this competition was partly artificial, as the French and Americans actually needed each other. Their educational missions also had to deal with the circumstances of the war in Vietnam. In the early 1970s, the French resigned themselves to the dismantling of their educational network while American reform met with substantial resistance in South Vietnamese society, which resented the Americanisation of an educational system that mixed the Confucian and the French academic traditions, as symbolised by the enduring popularity of the Baccalaureate examination that still exists today in Vietnam.

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Corrigendum

Notes

1 Direction de la documentation, Service des statistiques, “Renseignements statistiques sur l’Indochine, avril 1946”, 1946, Agence économique de la France d’outre-mer, Carton 163, Dossier 1, Archives nationales d’outre-mer.

2 Albert Charton, “Tableau statistique de l’enseignement en Indochine (1930, 1938, 1944)”, 1946, Fonds ministériel, Nouveau fonds, Indochine 4, Carton X 2, Dossier 1323, Archives nationales d’outre-mer.

3 Phạm Văn Đồng, “Les rapports culturels entre la France et le Viet-Nam, Discours prononcé le 6 mai 1946 à la Cité universitaire à Paris”, La Pensée 8 (September 1946).

4 Mission d’enseignement français et de coopération culturelle, “Bulletin annuel de la Mission d’enseignement français et de coopération culturelle 1954–1956”, 1956, Fonds Ho Chi Minh-ville, Service de coopération culturelle et technique, Carton 331, Centre des archives diplomatiques de Nantes.

5 Commissariat général du Plan, “Rapport général de la Section enseignement et éducation” (1946), 4–5, Fond du Haut Commissariat, Conspol, Carton 23, Archives nationales d’outre-mer.

6 Pierre Brocheux, Une histoire économique du Viet Nam, 1850–2007. La palanche et le camion (Paris: Les Indes Savantes, 2009), 175.

7 Mission d’enseignement français et de coopération culturelle, “Bulletin annuel de la Mission d’enseignement français et de coopération culturelle 1954–1956”.

8 Roger Lalouette, “Note N°3238/CC” (Ambassade de France au Vietnam, May 1963), 3, Série Asie-Océanie, Sous-série République du Vietnam 1956–1964, vol. 49, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

9 Michel Fourré-Cormeray, “Rapport sur les services de l’Ambassade de France au Sud-Vietnam” (Ministère des Affaires étrangères, 1957), Série Asie-Océanie, Sous-série République du Vietnam 1956–1964, vol. 1, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

10 Pierre Journoud, “Les relations franco-américaines à l’épreuve du Vietnam entre 1954 et 1975, de la défiance dans la guerre à la coopération pour la paix” (Thèse de Doctorat, Université Paris I Panthéon Sorbonne, 2007), 395.

11 Kathryn C. Statler, Replacing France: The Origins of American Intervention in Vietnam (Lexington, KT: University Press of Kentucky, 2007), 41–43.

12 Conseiller culturel, “Les activités américaines au Vietnam sur le plan culturel, N° 70/ECF/S, Confidentiel”, 1956, 8, Série Asie-Océanie, Sous-série République du Vietnam 1956–1964, vol. 51, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

13 Bernard E. Brown, “Excerpts from report by Dr Bernard E. Brown, Smith-Mundt Visiting Professor of Political Science, University of Saigon, Vietnam, February–July 1958” (Conference Board of Associated Research Council, July 1958), 4, Série Asie-Océanie, Sous-série République du Vietnam 1956–1964, vol. 51, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

14 Arnaud D’Andurain, “Le Vietnam se ferme aux ouvrages français” (Ambassade de France au Viet-Nam, May 1957), 5, Série Asie-Océanie, Sous-série République du Vietnam 1956–1964, vol. 48, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

15 Jean Michelin, “Proposition de résolution tendant à inviter le Gouvernement à rétablir la gratuité dans les établissements français d’enseignement au Viet-Nam” (Conseil de la République, N°138, Session ordinaire de 1957–1958, December 1957), 2, Série Asie-Océanie, Sous-série République du Vietnam 1956–1964, vol. 48, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

16 Robert Guillain, “Le Vietnam et nous. I. Premier bilan d’une décolonisation”, Le Monde, 25 December 1957.

17 Statler, Replacing France, 210.

18 Jean Payart, “Activités culturelles américaines au Vietnam” (Ambassade de France au Viet-Nam, 12 October 1957), 8–9, Série Asie”Océanie, Sous”série République du Vietnam 1956–1964, vol. 51, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

19 Jean-Pierre Dannaud, “Rapport sur le fonctionnement de la Mission française d’enseignement et de coopération culturelle au Vietnam pendant les années 1955–1956, N°393/ECF/JPD” (Haut Commissariat de la République française au Viet-Nam, 4 September 1956), 13, Série Asie-Océanie, Cotation provisoire, vol. E124, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

20 Conseiller culturel, “Les activités américaines au Vietnam sur le plan culturel, N° 70/ECF/S, Confidentiel”, 7.

21 Ibid., 9.

22 Roger Lalouette, “Télégramme à l’arrivée, N°986/88” (Ambassade de France au Vietnam, 8 September 1959), 1–2, Série Asie-Océanie, Sous-série République du Vietnam 1956–1964, vol. 48, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

23 Jean Martinelli et Jean-Félix Charvet, “Note N°185/IG” (Ambassade de France au Viet-Nam, August 1961), 4, Série Asie-Océanie, Sous-série République du Vietnam 1956–1964, vol. 49, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

24 Jean Payart, “L’aide économique américaine au Vietnam” (Ambassade de France au Viet-Nam, June 1957), 6, Série Asie-Océanie, Sous-série République du Vietnam 1956–1964, vol. 63, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

25 Payart, “Activités culturelles américaines au Vietnam”, 12–13.

26 Ibid., 9.

27 Philippe Bréant, “Note a/s de notre politique de coopération culturelle et technique au Sud-Vietnam” (Ministère des affaires étrangères, Direction générale des relations culturelles, scientifiques et techniques, June 1973), 14, Série Asie-Océanie, Sous-série Sud-Vietnam 1965–1976, vol. 290, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

28 “Notes d’instructions générales à l’intention de notre Ambassadeur au Sud-Vietnam” (Ministère des affaires étrangères, DGRCST, 22 November 1973), 1, Série Asie-Océanie, Sous-série Sud-Vietnam 1965–1976, vol. 290, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

29 Vu Tam Ich, a former high school teacher in Hanoi, had come to the US in 1950 with a Smith-Mundt (Fullbright) scholarship and was possibly one of the first Vietnamese to study in the US. Ray Johnson, “Goodbye: Two longtime DLI employees say adio, chào, so long”, Globe, 30 January 1991.

30 Vu Tam Ich, “A historical survey of educational developments in Vietnam”, Bureau of School Service, University of Kentucky, College of Education XXXIII, no. 2 (1959): 96.

31 Ibid., 96–97.

32 Ibid., 120–121.

33 Ibid., 96.

34 Brown, “Excerpts from report by Dr Bernard E. Brown”, 2.

35 Wesley R. Fishel, “Third report of the Michigan State University Vietnam Advisory Group in Public Administration to the Government of Vietnam” (Saigon: Michigan State University Vietnam Technical Assistance Project, 30 June 1956), 12.

36 Ralph D. Purdy, “Evaluation and planning for secondary education in South Vietnam” (Athens, OH: Ohio University, and Saigon: USAID, Education Division, 28 August 1971), 19.

37 Edgar N. Pike, “Problems of education in Vietnam”, in Wesley R. Fishel, ed. Problems of Freedom: South Vietnam Since Independence (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1961), 78.

38 Ibid., 76.

39 “Student records from Vietnam: Their evaluation for placement of students in American educational institutions” (USOM–United States Operations Mission to Vietnam, April 1962), 3.

40 Orin W. Hascall, “The Baccalaureate examination in the Republic of Vietnam” (Stevens Point, WI: University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, July 1972), 16.

41 Stanley A. Barnett, Erroll D. Michener and C. Walter Stone, “Developmental Book activities and needs in the Republic of Vietnam” (New York: Wolf Management Services/Contract No. AID/csd-1162, October 1966), 103.

42 Charles Mohr, “Saigon social ills worry U.S. aides”, New York Times, 21 February 1966.

43 Purdy, “Evaluation and planning”, 28.

44 Ibid., 25.

45 Lee Sherman Dreyfus, President of Wisconsin State University-Stevens Point, cited by Thomas C. Reich, “Reforming higher education in a society at war: Wisconsin State University-Stevens Point’s Advisory Mission in South Vietnam, 1967–1974”, Journal for the Study of Peace and Conflict 2008–2009 annual edition (2009): 17.

46 Brown, “Excerpts from Report by Dr Bernard E. Brown”, 7.

47 Payart, “Activités culturelles américaines au Vietnam”, 8–9.

48 Journoud, “Les relations franco–américaines”, 395–396.

49 Pierre Journoud, “Face-à-face culturel au Sud-Vietnam 1954–1965”, in Publications de la Sorbonne, ed. Entre rayonnement et réciprocité, Contributions à l’histoire de la diplomatie culturelle (Paris: Université Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne, 2002), 161.

50 P.H.M. Jones, “Vietnam at school”, Far Eastern Economic Review 36, no. 3 (1962): 556.

51 Camille Bergeaud, “Allocution au Club de Rotary de M. Camille Bergeaud, Inspecteur général, Conseiller culturel de l’Ambassade de France”, 8 January 1959, 2, Série Asie-Océanie, Sous-série République du Vietnam 1956–1964, vol. 48, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

52 Justin Godart, Rapport de mission en Indochine, 1er janvier–14 mars 1937 (Paris: Editions L’Harmattan, 1994), 152–153.

53 “General Scholarship Program: Project agreement between the Department of State, Agency for International Development, and the Directorate General for Budget and Foreign Aid” (USAID, 26 May 1970), 2.

54 Mission d’enseignement français et de coopération culturelle, “Bulletin annuel de la Mission d’enseignement français et de coopération culturelle 1954–1956”, 42.

55 Dương Thiệu Tống, “A proposal for the comprehensive secondary school curriculum in Vietnam” (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1968), 110.

56 Jean Faure, the director of the École française de Nha Trang, had been using such methods since 1948. Mission d’enseignement français et de coopération culturelle, “Bulletin annuel de la Mission d’enseignement français et de coopération culturelle 1952–1953”, 1953, 92–93, Fonds Ho Chi Minh-ville, Service de coopération culturelle et technique, Carton 331, Centre des archives diplomatiques de Nantes.

57 Dương Thiệu Tống, “A Proposal”, 131.

58 Jacques de Folin, “Avenir de la langue et de la culture française au Sud-Viêtnam (1ère partie)” (Consulat général de France à Saigon, Feburary 1973), Annexe no 1, Série Asie-Océanie, Sous-série Sud-Vietnam 1965–1976, vol. 290, Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve.

59 USAID, United States Economic Assistance to South Vietnam, Volume II (Washington, DC: USAID, 1975), 177.

60 Joseph W. Dodd, “Aspects of recent educational change in South Vietnam”, Journal of Developing Areas 6, no. 4 (1972): 569.

61 Lê Phuong, La corruption au Vietnam (Montreal, QC: Editions Québec/Amérique, 1978), 83.

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