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Abstract
With the advent of modern states, a mandatory relationship and interaction emerged between compulsory education, military service, and the practices of citizenship. Producing a loyal citizen required a disciplined, central, and compulsory education. In the nineteenth century when greatness was linked to armament, education was considered a vital aspect of social and military mobilisation. For this reason, rituals and practices in favour of military service were included in many education programmes. New applications were introduced and military themes integrated into courses such as physical education, gymnastics, history, and geography. Similar initiatives were seen in the Ottoman Empire in the second half of the nineteenth century. Thereafter, military education and paramilitary organisations which became popular during the First World War gained another dimension in the republican period that followed the collapse of the empire. Military service preparation was made a compulsory course at every educational level in Turkey in 1926, and included an annual 20-day camping exercise. The programme is a little-investigated topic of Turkish education history but is widely considered to have played a key role in shaping social attitudes in the country. This article reports the findings of an analysis of first-hand sources and archive documents relating to the Military Service Preparatory Programme in Turkey between 1926 and 1947 and its lasting effects.
Notes
1 James Van Horn Melton, Absolutism and the Eighteenth-Century Origins of Compulsory Schooling in Prussia and Austria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), xiii.
2 Alvin Toffler, Third Wave (New York: Morrow, 1980), 1–10.
3 Erik J. Zürcher, ed., Arming the State: Military Conscription in the Middle East and Central Asia, 1775–1925 (London: I.B. Tauris, 1999).
4 Alfred Vagts, A History of Militarism: Civilian and Military (New York: Meridian Books, 1959), 41.
5 Michael Mann, “The Roots and Contradictions of Modern Militarism,” in States, War and Capitalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), 166.
6 Cynthia Eleone, Globalization & Militarism: Feminists Make the Link (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007), 4.
7 Nancy Taber, “Intersecting Discourses of Militarism: Military and Academic Gendered Organizations,” International Journal of Lifelong Education 34, no. 2 (2015): 232.
8 Ute Frevert, A Nation in Barracks: Modern Germany, Military Conscription and Civil Society (Oxford: Berg, 2004), Chapters 2 and 3.
9 Eugene Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1976), 295.
10 Ayşegül Altınay, Tanıl Bora, “Ordu, Militarizm ve Milliyetçilik,” Modern Türkiye’de Siyasî Düşünce, Milliyetçilik [Political Thought in Modern Turkey], vol. 4 (İstanbul: İletişim Press, 2002), 141.
11 Vagts, A History of Militarism, 15.
12 John Langdon-Davies, Militarism in Education: A Contribution to Educational Reconstruction (New York: The Viking Press, 1919), 149.
13 Vincent Stolk, Willeke Los, and Wiel Veugelers, “Physical Education for Citizenship or Humanity? Freethinkers and Natural Education in the Netherlands in the Mid-Nineteenth Century,” History of Education 41, no. 6 (2012): 733–48.
14 John Horne, ed., State, Society and Mobilization in Europe during the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 53–69; Heather L. Dichter, “Rebuilding Physical Education in the Western Occupation Zones of Germany, 1945–1949,” History of Education 41, no. 6 (November 2012): 787–806.
15 L. Thompson, “Militarism and Scottish Schools in the Boer War Era,” Physical Education Review 8, no. 2 (1986): 110–19.
16 Stolk, Los, and Veugelers, “Physical Education for Citizenship or Humanity?”.
17 David Kırk and Karen Twigg, “The Militarization of School Physical Training in Australia: The Rise and Demise of the Junior Cadet Training Scheme, 1911–31,” History of Education 22, no. 4 (1993): 391–414.
18 Dichter, “Rebuilding Physical Education,” 787.
19 Merja Paksuniemi, “Mobilising Children for National Defence: Boys’ Education in the Finnish Civil Guard Organisation During the Second World War”, Childhood in the Past, 9, no. 1 (2016): 44–57.
20 Kırk and Twigg, “The Militarization of School Physical Training in Australia,” 391.
21 Zürcher, Arming the State.
22 Ayşe Gül Altınay, The Myth of the Military Nation: Militarism, Gender and Education in Turkey (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). Altınay did not use this paper’s resources.
23 Selçuk Akşin Somel, The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire, 1839–1908: Islamization, Autocracy and Discipline (Leiden: Brill, 2001), Appendices 4–7.
24 Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz Paşa, Millet-i Müsellaha: Asrımızın Usul ve Ahval-i Askeriyesi [The nation in arms], trans. Mehmed Tahir (İstanbul: Matbaa-i Ebüzziya, 1305/1888).
25 Kent F. Schull, Prisons in the Late Ottoman Empire: Microcosms of Modernity (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2014), 168.
26 Yaşar Tolga Cora, “Constructing and Mobilizing the ‘Nation’ through Sports: State, Physical Education and Nationalism under the Young Turk Rule, 1908–1918” (master’s thesis, Central European University, 2007), 47.
27 Türk Gücü Umumî Nizâmı, Türkün Gücü Her Şeye Yeter [General organisation of the Turkish power] (İstanbul: Matbaa-i Hayriye, 1913), 3.
28 Sadık Sarısaman, “Birinci Dünya Savaşı sırasında ihtiyat kuvveti olarak kurulan Osmanlı genç dernekleri” [Ottoman youth organisations founded in the First World War as an uncommitted force], OTAM (2003): S.11, 442.
29 Tedrisat-ı İbtidaiye Kanun-ı Muvakkati [Provisional primary school law] (İstanbul: Matbaa-i Âmire, 1329/1913), Article 13.
30 Selim Sırrı Tarcan, Hatıralarım [My Memories] (Istanbul: Türkiye Press, 1946), 55.
31 Maârif-i Umumiye Nezareti, Mekâtib-i İbtidaiye Ders Programı, Altı, Beş, Dört ve Üç Dershaneli ve Muallimli Mekteplere Mahsus [Primary school curriculum] (İstanbul: Matbaa-i Amire, 1330/1914), 108–10.
32 Osman Ergin, Türk Maarif Tarihi [History of Turkish education], vol. 5 (İstanbul: Eser Press, 1977), 1722.
33 Hasan Âli Yücel, Türkiye’de Orta Öğretim [Secondary education in Turkey] (Ankara: Ministry of Culture, 1994), 257.
34 M. Sadullah Sander, Yeni Yurt Bilgisi: Sınıf III [New homeland knowledge] (İstanbul: Resimli Ay Press, 1935–36), 80–1.
35 Abdülbaki [Gölpınarlı], Yurt Bilgisi [Homeland knowledge] (İstanbul: Türk Neşriyat Yurdu, 1927–28), 70.
36 Hasan Ünder, “Kemalizmin Işığında, Atatürk Döneminde Eğitsel Değerler” [Educational values in the light of Kemalism, during the Ataturk period] (PhD diss., Ankara University, EBE, 1998), 96.
37 “Kararname sureti”, Maarif Vekâleti Tebliğler Mecmuası [Communiques Journal], no. 10, (November 10 1926): 7.
38 “Erkek lise sınıflarıyla erkek muallim mekteplerinin son iki sınıflarında yapılacak askeri tedrisat ve talimler hakkında talimatname” [Regulation about military instructions at the last two classes in the boys’ high school and teacher schools], Maarif Vekâleti Tebliğler Mecmuası no. 10 (November 10, 1926): 8–10.
39 Cemil Tahir, Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri I [Preparation for military courses I] (İstanbul: Harbiye Mektebi Matbaası, 1926).
40 Maarif Vekâleti Tebliğler Mecmuası, 10, no. 12 (September 15, 1926): 18–20.
41 Maarif Vekâleti Tebliğler Mecmuası, Mayıs 15, 1926, s.4, s.37, Karar No: 9264/27; “Mektep talebesinin resmî selamı ne surette ifa edeceğine dair talimatname” [Regulation concerning official salutes for school students], Maarif Vekâleti Tebliğler Mecmuası no. 6 (July 15, 1926): 21.
42 “Kasket veya bere giyen mektep talebelerinin resmî selamı ne suretle ifa edeceğine dair talimat” [Regulation concerning official salutes for school students who wear caps or head dresses], Maarif Vekâleti Tebliğler Mecmuası no. 4 (May 15, 1926): 19.
43 Maarif Vekâleti Tebliğler Mecmuası, no. 7 (August 15, 1926): 9.
44 “Askere hazırlık tedrisatı talimatnamesine ilave”[Addition to regulation of the military preparation], Maarif Vekâleti Tebliğler Mecmuası nos. 21–4 (January 15, 1927): 123.
45 Maarif Vekâleti Tebliğler Mecmuası no. 14 (March 15, 1927): 14–15 and no. 17 (June 15, 1927).
46 “Orta, lise ve ilköğretim okulları askerlik dersi sınav talimatnamesi” [Regulation of military courses for middle, high, and primary schools], Milli Talim ve Terbiye Dairesi [Board of Education and Discipline], Decision no. 57 (June 2, 1936).
47 Askerliğe Hazırlık Tedrisatı, Askerî Ehliyetname Almak ve İhtiyat Zabiti Hazırlık Kıtaları Hakkında Talimatname [Training for military service] (Ankara: Erkân-ı Harbiye-i Umumiye Matbaası, 1927).
48 Askerlik Mükellefiyeti Kanunu [The law of military service charge] (İstanbul: Orhaniye Press, 1928); Resmi Gazete [Official Journal], no. 631 (July 12, 1927).
49 “İhtiyat Zâbitleri ve İhtiyat Askeri Memurları Kanunu" [The law of reserve forces and reserve officers], Düstûr 3, no. 8 (June 16 1927): 733–44.
50 “Askerliğe hazırlık derslerinin orta mekteplere de şamil olduğu hakkında" [Military preparation courses for the middle schools], Maarif Vekâleti Tebliğler Mecmuası nos. 21–4 (January 15, 1927): 121, 130.
51 Maarif Vekâleti Tebliğler Mecmuası no. 12 (January 15, 1926): 26.
52 “Askerî Tedrisat Hakkında" [About military instruction], Maarif Vekâleti Tebliğler Mecmuası nos. 25–6 (March 15, 1928): 56–7.
53 “Askerî Tedrisat Hakkında,” 61.
54 Başar Arı, “Religion and Nation-Building in the Turkish Republic: Comparison of High School History Textbooks of 1931–41 and of 1942–50,” Turkish Studies 14, no. 2 (2013): 372–93.
55 Afet İnan and others, Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları I [The outlines of Turkish history I] (İstanbul: Maarif Vekâleti Yayınları, 1930), 411–415.
56 A. Âfetinan, Medenî Bilgiler ve M. Kemal Atatürk’ün El Yazıları [Civilised knowledge and script of M. Kemal Ataturk] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Press, 1998), 122.
57 Âfetinan, Medenî Bilgiler ve M. Kemal Atatürk’ün El Yazıları, 111, 115.
58 [Afet], Yurt Bilgisi Notlarımdan, Askerlik Vazifesi [Homeland notes, military service] (İstanbul: State Press, 1930).
59 [Afet], Yurt Bilgisi Notlarımdan, Askerlik Vazifesi, 52.
60 Milli Talim ve Terbiye Dairesi, Decision no. 193 (December 2, 1931).
61 Milli Talim ve Terbiye Dairesi, Decision no. 54 (September 24, 1932).
62 Milli Talim ve Terbiye Dairesi, Decision no. 11 (January 19, 1932).
63 Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Maarifi, 1923–1943 [Education in the Republic of Turkey] (Ankara: State Press, 1944), 112.
64 “Askere Hazırlık Dersi Yoklaması" [Muster roll of preparation for military course], Milli Talim ve Terbiye Dairesi, Decision no. 96 (May 2, 1935).
65 “Ortaokullarla liseler ve öğretmen okulları askerlik dersleri sınavları talimatnamesi" [Exam guidelines for military course for middle, high and teacher schools], Kültür Bakanlığı, Kültür Kurulu [Ministry of Culture, Board of Culture], Decision no. 57 (June 2, 1936).
66 “Maarif Vekâleti Merkez ve Teşkilat Kanunu,”, Resmi Gazete, Decision no. 3225 (June 23, 1937).
67 Maarif Vekâleti, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Maarifi, 1923–1943, 112–13.
68 Sait Tarakçıoğlu, “A Failed Project in Turkey’s Sports History: The Law on Physical Education of 1938,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 31, no. 14 (2014): 1807–19.
69 Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Maarifi, 1940–1941 [Education in the Republic of Turkey] (İstanbul: Education Press, 1941), 117.
70 “Bazı ortaokullarda kızlara mahsus askerlik dersleri hakkında’[About military courses for girls in some middle schools], Kültür Bakanlığı, Kültür Kurulu [Ministry of Culture, Board of Culture], Decision no. 4 (January 11, 1938).
71 Maarif Vekilliği Tebliğler Dergisi, no. 92 (October 14, 1940): 46.
72 Sabiha Gökçen, Atatürk’le Bir Ömür, Oktay Verel’in Kaleminden [A lifetime with the Ataturk, by Oktay Verel] (İstanbul: Altın Kitaplar Press, 1996), 126.
73 Maarif Vekilliği Tebliğler Dergisi, no. 92 (October 14, 1940): 44.
74 Recai Ökten, Askerliğe Hazırlık, Kızlar İçin [Military preparation for girls] (Ankara: Ministry of Education Press, 1941).
75 Hakkı Ezgeç, Askerliğe Hazırlık, Erkekler İçin [Military preparation for boys] (Ankara: Ministry of Education Press, 1942).
76 Kadri Yaman, Yurt Müdafaasında Türk Gençliği [Turkish youth in homeland defence] (İstanbul: State Press, 1937), 40.
77 Altınay, The Myth of the Military Nation, 119 and Chapter 5.
78 CHP Programı [CHP party programme] (1935), article 50, s. 43.
79 Sait Tarakçıoğlu, “A Failed Project in Turkey’s Sports History”.
80 “Köy Enstitülerinin askerlik dersi öğretmenleri hakkında" [About the military courses teacher of the village institutions], Maarif Vekilliği Tebliğler Dergisi, no. 119 (May 5, 1941): 164.
81 Maarif Vekilliği Tebliğler Dergisi, no. 120 (May 12, 1941): 166.
82 Talim ve Terbiye Dairesi, Decision no. 3/3196 (October 1, 1945).
83 “Talim Terbiye Dairesi Kurul Kararı" [Decisions of Board of Education and Discipline], (1947), in Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Milli Eğitimi, Kuruluşlar ve Tarihçeler [National education of the Republic of Turkey, foundation and history], ed. Nevzad Ayas (Ankara: Milli Eğitim Basımevi, 1948), 560.
84 Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Tebliğler Dergisi, no. 346 (September 17, 1945): 279.
85 Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Tebliğler Dergisi, no. 453 (September 29, 1947): 87–8.
86 Talim ve Terbiye Dairesi, Decision no. 1/5612 (May 5, 1947).
87 Altınay, The Myth of the Military Nation, 132–3.
88 Altınay and Bora, “Ordu, Militarizm ve Milliyetçilik,” 140.
89 Resmi Gazete, no. 28184 (January 25, 2012).
90 Ayas, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Milli Eğitimi, Kuruluşlar ve Tarihçeler, 550.