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ABSTRACT
The late Ottoman education policy implemented curriculum reforms adding science courses reduced to school children level. The modern science was popularised by supplementing public education with the new courses. Textbooks with illustrations efficiently introduced children to European material improvements and icons of progress. Between the years 1898 and 1924, home economics textbooks for girls, with improved illustrations and updated content, taught traditional tasks within modern guidelines. They conveyed the values of European family consumerism, in which material discoveries of science were adapted to domestic grounds. This paper explores home economics textbooks in an attempt to define and characterise the concept of scientifically idealised womanhood. It contextualises “scientific housewifery” within the debate on degeneration and the women question. It seeks to discuss the reproduction of patriarchal codes in the polished disguise of rationality and modern science.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 Mahmut Cevad Ibnü’ş Şeyh Nafi, Maarif-i Umumiye Nezareti Tarihçe-i Teşkilat ve İcraatı – XIX. Asır Osmanlı Maarif Tarihi [History of Ottoman Education], ed. Taceddin Kayaoğlu (İstanbul: Yeni Türkiye Yayınları, 2001), 3.
2 Selçuk Akşin Somel, The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire 1839–1908: Islamization, Autocracy and Discipline (Leiden: Brill, 2001).
3 Mehmet Ö. Alkan, Education Statistics in Modernization from the Tanzimat to the Republic, Historical Statistic Series No. 6 (Ankara: Prime Ministerial State Institute of Statistics, 2000).
4 Fuad Gündüzalp, Talim ve Terbiyede Buhran (Sivas: Vilayet Matbaası, 1340 [1924]), 25–9.
5 Yasemin Tümer Erdem, “II. Meşrutiyet’ten Cumhuriyet’e Kızların Eğitimi” (PhD thesis, Marmara University, 2007), 111.
6 Alkan, Education Statistics in Modernization.
7 Erdem, “II. Meşrutiyet’ten Cumhuriyet’e Kızların Eğitimi,” 173–99.
8 Ibid., 25.
9 Ibid., 285–356.
10 M.J. Boxer and J.H. Quataert, “Women in Industrializing, Liberalizing, and Imperializing Europe, Overview 1750–1890,” in Connecting Spheres, European Women in a Globalizing World, 1500 to the Present, ed. M.J. Boxer and J.H. Quataert (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 113–163.
11 Bahar Baskın, “II. Meşrutiyet’te Eğitim, Kadın ve İnas Darülfünunu” (MA thesis, İstanbul University, 2007), 113.
12 Erdem, “II. Meşrutiyet’ten Cumhuriyet’e Kızların Eğitimi,” 26.
13 Baskın, “II. Meşrutiyette Eğitim, Kadın ve İnas Darülfünunu,” 124.
14 Ibid., 183.
15 Erdem, “II. Meşrutiyet’ten Cumhuriyet’e Kızların Eğitimi,” 26; Baskın, “II. Meşrutiyette Eğitim, Kadın ve İnas Darülfünunu,” 124.
16 Ekin Enacar, “Education, Nationalism and Gender in the Young Turk Era (1908–1918),” (MA thesis, Bilkent University, 2007). She argues that traditional gender roles were cultivated through reasoning and rationality in the textbooks of morality.
17 Ayşegül Tutku Günaydın, “Cumhuriyet Öncesi Kadın Yazarların Romanlarında Toplumsal Cinsiyet ve Kimlik Sorunsalı (1877–1923)” [The Question of Gender and Identity in the Novels of Women Writers of the Pre-Republic Era (1877–1923)] (PhD thesis, İhsan Doğramacı Bilket University, 2012).
18 Meral Harmancı Turunçoğlu, “Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’in İlk Yıllarına Kadar Var Olan Kadın Oyun Yazarlarının Oyunlarında Toplumsal Cinsiyet” (PhD thesis, İstanbul University 2013).
19 Nuran Kekeç, “Ahmet Mithat Efendi’de Mizahın Toplumsal Cinsiyeti” [The Gender of Humour in Ahmet Mithat Efendi] (MA thesis, İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University, 2014).
20 Can Eyüp Çekiç, “On the Front and at Home: Women in the Modern Ottoman Epic,” Middle Eastern Studies 52, no. 4 (2016): 623–39.
21 Duygu Köksal and Anastasia Falierou, “Introduction: Historiography of Late Ottoman Women,” in A Social History of Late Ottoman Women: New Perspectives, ed. D. Köksal and A. Falierou (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 1–31.
22 Karen Offen, European Feminisms 1700–1950 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 132.
23 Ibid., 132.
24 Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder 1848–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 15.
25 Richard A. Soloway, Demography and Degeneration: Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate in the Twentieth Century Britain (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 7.
26 To name some of the scientists, a French physician Bénédict Augustine Morel’s Treatise in 1857, the first scientific criminologist Cesare Lomboso’s The Criminal Man in 1876, British psychiatrist Henry Maudsley’s Body and Will in 1883, a Hungarian physicist Max Nordau’s Degeneration in 1892, and an English zoologist and biologist Ray Lankester’s Degeneration: A Chapter in Darwinism in 1880.
27 Michael Winston, “Medicine, Marriage, and Human Degeneration in the French Enlightenment,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 38, no. 2 (Winter 2005): 263–81, 271.
28 Lothrop Stoddard, The Revolt Against Civilization: The Menace of the Under Man (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1922), 111; Stanton A. Coblenz, The Decline of Man (New York: Minton Balch Company, 1925), 243.
29 Institutions such as the National Birth Rate Commission in Britain aimed to produce policies on marriage and family to keep away from allegedly “being on the verge of calamity”. Richard A. Soloway, Demography and Degeneration: Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate in the Twentieth Century Britain (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 9.
30 Sylvana Tomaselli, “Moral Philosophy and Population Questions in Eighteenth Century Europe,” Population and Development Review 14, Supplement: Population and Resources in Western Intellectual Traditions (1988): 25.
31 Ibid., 25.
32 Ibid., 264.
33 Soloway, Demography and Degeneration, 9.
34 Mahmud Muhlis (Konya Idadiye Katibi), Inkılab-ı Efkardan Maarif (Konya: Konya Vilayet Matbaası, 1329–31 [1913–15]), 19–21.
35 Ali Ali’s treatise on education argues that feminists should not impose some dress codes on women. Ali Ali, Maarif’de Inkılap (Samsun: Şems Matbaası, 1337 [1921]), 31–2.
36 Ibnulhak Mehmet Tahir, Çarşaf Meselesi ([İstanbul]: Itimat Kütüphanesi, 1331 [1915]).
37 Serpil Çakır, “Feminism and Feminist History Writing in Turkey: The Discovery of Ottoman Feminism,” Aspasia 1 (2007): 64.
38 Odette Lacuerre, Feminism: Alem-i Nisvan, trans. Baha Tevfik (İstanbul: Dersaadet Kütüphanesi, n.d.), 61–85.
39 The apologetic character of Islamist ideology stressed the universality and superiority of religion over modern ideologies. For similar remarks by Ebuzziya Tevfik, see Özgür Türesay, “An Almanac for Ottoman Women: Notes on Ebuzziya Tevfik’s Takvimu’n-nisa (1317/1899),” in Köksal and Falierou, A Social History of Late Ottoman Women, 225–49.
40 See “patriarchal feminism” as a concept offered by E.B. Frierson, “Unimagined Communities: Women and Education in the Late Ottoman Empire 1876–1909,” Critical Matrix: The Princeton Journal of Women Gender and Culture 9, no.2 (1995): 55–90.
41 Modern education subjects such as science, history, politics, and economics were perceived as a threat against the moral values of boys too. See Benjamin C. Fortna, Imperial Classroom: Islam, the State, and Education in the Late Ottoman Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002): 43–86; Betül Açıkgöz, “The Transformation of School Knowledge in the Late Ottoman Empire: Conflicting Histories,” History of Education 5, no. 45 (2016): 547–569; Betül Açıkgöz, “Penetration of the Scientific Discourse into Textbooks of Religious Instruction in the 1910s in the Ottoman Empire,” History of Education & Children’s Literature 8, no. 1 (2013): 537–579.
42 Abdullah Cevdet, “İcmal-i Mukadderat-ı Nisa,” İctihad 11 (March 1909): 329–30. For similar remarks on the degeneration of women in Namık Kemal’s writings see Frierson, “Unimagined Communities,” 65.
43 Musa Kazım, “Hürriyet-Müsavat,” Sırat-ı Müstakim 2, no. 3 (Şaban 1326 [1910]): 36–37.
44 Hilmi A. Malik Evrenol, Çocuk Ruhu ve Terbiyesi (İstanbul: Hilal Matbaası, 1926), 58–9.
45 They also raised their arguments against the misogynist campaigns in Europe. In response to the European best seller Physiological Feeblemindedness of the Female, written by Paul Möbius in 1900, the columnist of the Ladies’ Own magazine claimed that once girls were given equal educational opportunity, they won more prizes than boys in the Ottoman Empire. Frierson, “Unimagined Communities,” 55–90.
46 Erdem, “II. Meşrutiyet’ten Cumhuriyet’e Kızların Eğitimi,” 53.
47 For some counter arguments of Ottoman feminists, see Serpil Çakır, Osmanlı Kadın Hareketi (İstanbul: Metis, 1994), 218.
48 Ibid., 69.
49 Erdem, “II. Meşrutiyet’ten Cumhuriyet’e Kızların Eğitimi,” 72, 79.
50 Ibid., 92.
51 Mehmet Salih Erkek, Bir Mesrutiyet Aydını Ethem Nejat, 1887–1921 (Istanbul: Kitap Yayınevi, 2012).
52 Ethem Nejat, “Kız Mektepleri”, Sırat-ı Müstakim, 6 no. 156 (1329 [1913]): 408–409.
53 See how Fatma Aliye situates feminism within Islamic precepts and her call “Let us take a warning from the Bas-bleus!” in Frierson, “Unimagined Communities,” 55–90.
54 Ethem Nejat, Terbiye-i Akliye Islahatı (İstanbul: Çiftçi Kütüphanesi, 1331 [1915]).
55 Ibid., 38.
56 Fatmagül Berktay, “Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyet’e Feminizm,” in Tanzimat ve Meşrutiyet’in Birikimi, ed. Mehmet Ö. Alkan (İstanbul: İletişim, 2001), 354.
57 Deniz A. Kandiyoti, “Emancipated but Unliberated? Reflections on the Turkish Case,” Feminist Studies 13, no. 2 (1987): 317–38.
58 Yeşim Arat, “The Project of Modernity and Women in Turkey,” in Rethinking Modernity and National Identity in Turkey, ed. B. Sibel B and K. Reşat (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997), 95–112.
59 Gündüzalp, Talim ve Terbiyede Buhran, 25–9.
60 Ibid.
61 Ibid.
62 Ibid.
63 Ibid. Similarly, Ibrahim Aşki argued that women had to be active at home by managing home affairs as was the case in Europe. İbrahim Aşki [Tanık], Mekteb Terbiyesi (İstanbul: Zarafet Matbaası, 1330 [1914]), 158.
64 Doktor Halil Fikret, “Hakiki Feminizm,” Hayat 4, no. 92 (Ankara, Ağustos 30, 1928): 269–270.
65 Mekatib-i Iptidaiye Ders Müfredatı (Altı, Beş, Dört, Üç Dershane ve Muallimli Mekteplere Mahsus) (Istanbul: Matbaa-i Amire, 1332 [1916]), 25. Mekatib-i Iptidaiye-i Umumiye Talimatnamesi (Istanbul: Matbaa-i Amire, 1331 [1915]).
66 Erdem, “II. Meşrutiyet’ten Cumhuriyet’e Kızların Eğitimi,” 245.
67 Maarif-i Umumiye Nezareti, Inas Sultanisi Sınıf-ı Ibtidaiye ve Taliyesinin Ders Programları (Istanbul: Matbaa-i Amire, 1330 [1914]).
68 Cevad, Maarif-i Umumiye, 233.
69 Ibid., 259.
70 Elementary education was increased to six years with addition of the three-year rushdiye school to the iptidai education in 1913. It is divided into three parts, each of which has two grades: devre-i ula, devre-i vasatiye, and devre-i aliye. Tedrisat-ı İptidaiye Kanun-u Muvakkati (İstanbul: Matbaa-i Amire, 1329 [1913]).
71 Cevad, Maarif-i Umumiye, 265.
72 Two books are different in that Avanzade Mehmet Süleyman’s book is not specified for a certain grade but recommended for schools which had one single copy in all catalogues. [Ayse] Fahriye is the single female author whose work mostly focused on cookery. Her book is printed with the sanction of the Ministry; yet no grade or school name is mentioned.
73 Betül Açıkgöz, “Approval and Disapproval of Textbooks in the Late Ottoman Empire,” History of Education 1, no. 46 (2017): 1–20.
74 Mekteb-i Hukuk Mezunlarından ve Galatasaray Sultanisi Muallimlerinden Mithat Sadullah, Resimli Yeni İdare-i Beytiyye Dersleri (İstanbul: Tefeyyüz Matbaası, 1337 [1921]).
75 Ibid.; A. Rıza (Mabeyni Hümayun Cenabı Melukane Mütercimlerinden), Kızlara Mahsus İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1314 [1898]) (Birinci ve İkinci Kısım) (İnas mekatibinin dördüncü senesinde tedris olunmak üzere Maarif Nezareti Celilesinin canibi alisinden intihab ve kabul buyurulmuşdur); Ahmet Edip, İktisad-ı Beyti (İstanbul: Kanaat Kütüphanesi, 1331 [1915]) (Maarif Nezareti Celilesi Tercüme ve Telif dairesince tedkik edilerek inas sultanisinin altıncı sınıfına kabul edilmiştir); Mithat Sadullah, Resimli Yeni İdare-i Beytiyye Dersleri (İstanbul: Orhaniye Matbaası, 1340 [1924]) (Maarif Nezaret-i Celilesince bilumum inas mekteplerine kabul olunmuştur) (Devre-i Mutavassıta Birinci Sene); Behram Münir, Muhtasar İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Artin Asaduryan Şirket-i Mürettebiye Matbaası, 1321 [1905]) (Maarif Nezaret-i Celilesi program komisyon aliyesince umum inas mektatibi iptidaiyesinde tedris olunmak üzere kabul buyurulmuştur); A. Rıza, Kızlara Mahsus İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Karabet, 1315 [1899] (İkinci Kitap) (İnas mekatibinin beşinci senesinde tedris olunmak üzere Maarif Nezaret-i Celilesinden intihab ve kabul buyurulmuştur); A. Rıza, Kızlara Mahsus İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1314 [1898]); Avanzade Mehmet Süleyman, Rehnüma-i İdare-i Beytiyyeden Musavver Lekeler Dersleri ([İstanbul]: Karabet Matbaası, 1311 [1895]); Hüseyin Hıfzı, Tarzı Nevin İdare-i Beytiyye (Dersaadet: Tefeyyüz Kütüphanesi, 1330 [1914]) (Altı yaşından on yaşına kadar kız çocuklarının aile içindeki mevkilerini, vazifelerini öğretir, dirayet, ve nezaketi adabı muaşereti çocukların anlayabileceği açık bir tarzda tarif ve talim eder); Nazım İçsel, İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Kütüphane-i İslam ve Askeri, 1334 [1918]) (Devre-i Aliye- İkinci Sene) (Bilumum inas iptidai mektepleriyle ve mekatibi sultaniyenin iptidai sınıflarında tedris edilmek üzere maarif nezareti celilesi tarafından kabul edilmiştir); Nazım İçsel, İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Kütüphane-i İslam ve Askeri, 1334 [1918]) (Devre-i Mutavassıta Birinci Sene).
76 Mehmet Izzet, Rehber-i Umur-u Beytiyye (Istanbul: Feridiye Matbaası, 1319 [1893]).
77 Offen, European Feminisms, 224.
78 E.B. Frierson, “Women in Late Ottoman Intellectual History,” in Late Ottoman Society: The Intellectual Legacy, ed. Elisabeth Özdalga (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2005), 135–61.
79 A. Rıza (Mabeyni Hümayun Cenabı Melukane Mütercimlerinden), Kızlara Mahsus İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1314 [1898]) (Birinci ve İkinci Kısım) (İnas mekatibinin dördüncü senesinde tedris olunmak üzere Maarif Nezareti Celilesinin canibi alisinden intihab ve kabul buyurulmuşdur).
80 One exception is a cookery book written by a woman: [Ayşe] Fahriye, Ev Kadını (İstanbul: n.p., 1310 [1894]) (Maarif Nezaret-i Celilesinin 1303 numaralı ve fi 4 Kanun-u Sani sene 1308 tarihli ruhsatnamesiyle tab olunmuştur.) This is a canonical book which had new editions up to 2007.
81 Ahmet Edip, İktisad-ı Beyti (İstanbul: Kanaat Kütüphanesi, 1331 [1915]) (Maarif Nezareti Celilesi Tercüme ve Telif dairesince tedkik edilerek inas sultanisinin altıncı sınıfına kabul edilmiştir), 3.
82 Ibid., 31.
83 Mithat Sadullah, Resimli Yeni İdare-i Beytiyye Dersleri (İstanbul: Orhaniye Matbaası, 1340 [1924]) (Maarif Nezaret-i Celilesince bilumum inas mekteplerine kabul olunmuştur) (Devre-i Mutavassıta Birinci Sene), 65.
84 Ibid., 67.
85 Nazım İçsel, İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Kütüphane-i İslam ve Askeri, 1334 [1918]) (Devre-i Aliye- İkinci Sene) (Bilumum inas iptidai mektepleriyle ve mekatibi sultaniyenin iptidai sınıflarında tedris edilmek üzere Maarif Nezareti Celilesi tarafından kabul edilmiştir); Nazım İçsel, İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Kütüphane-i İslam ve Askeri, 1334 [1918]) (Devre-i Mutavassıta Birinci Sene).
86 A. Rıza, Kızlara Mahsus İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Karabet, 1315 [1899]) (İkinci Kitap) (İnas mekatibinin beşinci senesinde tedris olunmak üzere Maarif Nezaret-i Celilesinden intihab ve kabul buyurulmuştur), 5.
87 Ibid., 10.
88 Ibid., 10.
89 Ibid., 14.
90 Ibid., 34.
91 Ibid., 8.
92 Ahmet Edip, İktisad-ı Beyti (İstanbul: Kanaat Kütüphanesi, 1331 [1915]) (Maarif nezareti celilesi tercüme ve telif dairesince tedkik edilerek inas sultanisinin altıncı sınıfına kabul edilmiştir), 29. Behram Münir, Muhtasar İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Artin Asaduryan Şirket-i Mürettebiye Matbaası, 1321 [1905]) (Maarif Nezaret-i Celilesi program komisyon aliyesince umum inas mektatibi iptidaiyesinde tedris olunmak üzere kabul buyurulmuştur).
93 Ibid., 35.
94 Avanzade Mehmet Süleyman, Rehnüma-i İdare-i Beytiyyeden Musavver Lekeler Dersleri ([İstanbul]: Karabet Matbaası, 1311 [1895]) (Esrar-ı fenniye ve sınaiye ile umur-u idare-i beytiyyeden bahisdir. Maarif Nezaret-i Celilesinin ruhsatıyla tab olunmuştur). He marketed his book in the introduction section by highlighting the importance of knowing the ins and outs of stain removal. What is commendable in the book for contemporary historians is that Avanzade Mehmet Süleyman gave a glossary of the chemicals with their translation from French into the Ottoman language.
95 A. Rıza, Kızlara Mahsus İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1314 [1898]).
96 Ibid., 71.
97 Fahriye, Ev Kadını, 401–5.
98 The use of needles was stressed more than sewing machines, which were still only affordable for the upper classes. “A needle is the most loyal friend of a housewife.” A. Rıza, Kızlara Mahsus İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Karabet Matbaası, 1314 [1898]), 41.
99 Frierson writes: “The Singer Sewing Machine Company marketed its products both to home and factory producers and offered credit arrangements that would have affected many homes at all levels of society, from sweatshop owner through factory owners to konak households with private seamstresses and tailors.” E.B. Frierson, “Cheap and Easy: The Creation of Consumer Culture in Late Ottoman Society,” in Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550–1922, ed. D. Quataert (New York: State University of New York Press, 2000): 243–60.
100 Nazım İçsel, İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Kütüphane-i İslam ve Askeri, 1334 [1918]) (Devre-i Aliye- İkinci Sene) (Bilumum inas iptidai mektepleriyle ve mekatibi sultaniyenin iptidai sınıflarında tedris edilmek üzere maarif nezareti celilesi tarafından kabul edilmiştir), 25.
101 Behram Münir, Muhtasar İdare-i Beytiyye, 48.
102 Ibid., 46.
103 Ibid., 56.
104 Hüseyin Hıfzı, Tarzı Nevin İdare-i Beytiyye (Dersaadet: Tefeyyüz Kütüphanesi, 1330 [1914]) (Altı yaşından on yaşına kadar kız çocuklarının aile içindeki mevkilerini, vazifelerini öğretir, dirayet, ve nezaketi adabı muaşereti çocukların anlayabileceği açık bir tarzda tarif ve talim eder).
105 Nazım İçsel, İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Kütüphane-i İslam ve Askeri, 1334 [1918]) (Devre-i Mutavassıta Birinci Sene), 3.
106 (Mekteb-i Hukuk Mezunlarından ve Galatasaray Sultanisi Muallimlerinden) Mithat Sadullah, Resimli Yeni İdare-i Beytiyye Dersleri (İstanbul: Tefeyyüz Matbaası, 1337 [1921]).
107 Mithat Sadullah, Resimli Yeni İdare-i Beytiyye Dersleri, 80.
108 Hüseyin Hıfzı, Tarzı Nevin İdare-i Beytiyye, 11.
109 Nazım İçsel, İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Kütüphane-i İslam ve Askeri, 1334 [1918]) (Devre-i Aliye- İkinci Sene) (Bilumum inas iptidai mektepleriyle ve mekatibi sultaniyenin iptidai sınıflarında tedris edilmek üzere maarif nezareti celilesi tarafından kabul edilmiştir), 26.
110 Ibid., 8.
111 “Her elder sisters used to do all chores and Hatice passed her time by resting and reading books.” Nazım İçsel, İdare-i Beytiyye (İstanbul: Kütüphane-i İslam ve Askeri, 1334 [1918]) (Devre-i Aliye- İkinci Sene) (Bilumum inas iptidai mektepleriyle ve mekatibi sultaniyenin iptidai sınıflarında tedris edilmek üzere maarif nezareti celilesi tarafından kabul edilmiştir).
112 Mithat Sadullah, Resimli Yeni İdare-i Beytiyye Dersleri, 16; Behram Münir, Muhtasar İdare-i Beytiyye, 12.
113 E.B. Frierson, “Gender, Consumption and Patriotism: The Emergence of an Ottoman Public Sphere,” in Public Islam and the Common Good, ed. Armando Salvatone and Dale F. Eickelman (Leiden: Brill, 2004), 99–125.
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Betül Açıkgöz
Dr Betül Açıkgöz completed her PhD at Bogazici University in Istanbul with her dissertation examining the epistemological transformation in school textbooks in the 1910s and 1920s. Her academic interests focus on history of education and ideas, as well as history of gender and minority rights. She has published articles in several international journals, including History of Education and Children’s Literature and History of Education. She also co-authored an article on minority rights in the Early Turkish Republic (Middle Eastern Studies 1, no.54 (2018):1-26). She taught courses on the Late Ottoman and Early Republican history in Turkey, and is currently involved in teaching Turkish at schools and universities in the United States.