Exhibiting children at risk: child art, international exhibitions and Save the Children Fund in Vienna, 1919–1923

Abstract

In November 1920 an exhibition of children’s art by the pupils of Franz Cizek’s Viennese Juvenile Art Class opened to the public in London under the auspices of the Save the Children Fund and went on to tour internationally. Supported by a network of influential educators, artists, architects, political and humanitarian activists, the exhibition represents an early example of a practice that became increasingly common during the twentieth century: the exhibiting of the art of children at risk from the effects of war by activists and non‐governmental aid agencies as a mechanism for raising public awareness and financial support for issues of child protection. This article will tell two intertwined stories. The first, and the primary focus of the article, concerns the exhibition as a humanitarian intervention in child relief in post‐First World War Vienna. Second, it briefly tells the story of the exhibition as an educational intervention that influenced the teaching of art in Britain and the USA. The article evaluates the success, or otherwise, of the exhibition in meeting its organisers’ aims. In so doing it explores the network of activists that supported the exhibition, and some of the methodological issues involved in mapping, researching and understanding the web of connections among a group of individuals which at first sight appears very disparate. Finally, historians are increasingly engaging with different methodologies and underused historical sources to counter the silences surrounding children’s testimonies in the archive. By comparing the 1920 exhibition with later examples, which represent explicit attempts to exhibit the work of children in war as a means of disseminating their impressions of conflict and their hopes for future peace and international cooperation, the article hopes to make a contribution to this debate by demonstrating that exhibitions of children’s artwork are valuable sites for exploring the emergence of the child’s “voice” through art.

Keywords:

• Child art
• child protection
• women activists
• networks

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Ian Grosvenor; Andrew Coates; Diane Tye of Save the Children; Leonard Bartle of the National Art Education Archive, Bretton Hall; and the staff of the Friends Library, Marx Memorial Library, Women’s Library, British Library, and the Institute of Education Archives, all in London. Grateful thanks are also due to the History of Education Society GB for the award of the Brian Simon Bursary to enable my attendance at ISCHE 29.

Notes

¹ Francesca Mary Wilson, Rebel Daughter of a Country House: The Life of Eglantyne Jebb, Founder of the Save the Children Fund (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1967), 198.

² Francesca Mary Wilson, In the Margins of Chaos: Recollections of Relief Work in and between Three Wars (London: John Murray, 1944), 124.

³ Buxton was educated at Newnham College Cambridge (1900–1904) and married Charles Roden Buxton in 1904. He shared her interest in international affairs and her political outlook and in 1916–1917 they joined both the Independent Labour Party and the Society of Friends. Jebb was briefly a teacher before her health deteriorated; she was subsequently involved in social research in Cambridge and a member of Cambridge Education Committee. See Kathleen Freeman, If Any Man Build: The History of the Save the Children Fund (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1965), 20; Edward Fuller, The Right of the Child: A Chapter in Social History (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1951), 15–34; FFC pamphlets at the British Library 8275.s.5; Sybil Oldfield, “Buxton, Dorothy Frances (1881–1963),” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/56643 (accessed February 20, 2009); Francesca Mary Wilson, Rebel Daughter, 17, 168.

⁴ Wilson, Rebel Daughter, 174.

⁵ Helen Jones, Women in British Public Life, 1914–50: Gender, Power and Social Policy (Harlow: Pearson Education, 2000), 79–82.

⁶ Ibid., Wilson, Rebel Daughter, 175.

⁷ Dorothy Frances Buxton, ed., Save the Child!: A Posthumous Essay by Eglantyne Jebb (London: Weardale Press, 1929), 3–5.

⁸ Eglantyne Jebb, “A History of the Save the Children Fund,” Record of the Save the Children Fund 3, no. 1 (1922): 2.

¹⁰ The Friend, June 20, 1919, 396.

⁹ Johanna Alberti, Beyond Suffrage: Feminism in War and Peace (London: Macmillan Press, 1989), 41, 45, 85.

¹¹ Clark trained in medicine at Birmingham University and undertook relief work in France during the First World War. See Sandra Stanley Holton, “Clark, Hilda (1881–1955),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/38518 (accessed February 20, 2009); Sandra Stanley Holton, Quaker Women: Personal Life, Memory and Radicalism in the Lives of Women Friends, 1780–1930 (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2007).

¹² Edith Mary Pye, ed., War and its Aftermath: Letters from Hilda Clark, M.B., B.S. from France, Austria and the Near East 1914–1924 (no publisher or place of publication, [1956]), 39–40.

¹³ Hilda Clark, “Friends Relief Work in Austria: The Scope of the Work,” The Friend, November 28, 1919, 723–4.

¹⁴ The Friend, August 15, 1919, 510.

¹⁵ Anna B. Thomas, “First Impressions of the Vienna Mission,” The Friend, November 5, 1920, 709–710.

¹⁶ Minutes of the Austria and Hungary Sub‐committee of the Friends Emergency and War Victims Relief Committee, Friends Library, London, FEWVRC/AH/M1‐3.

¹⁸ Wilson, Rebel Daughter, 198.

¹⁷ Wilson had previously undertaken relief work with displaced children in France and with wounded and displaced Serbs in North Africa and Serbia. She went on to work in Russia during the famine and in Spain during the Civil War. At the end of the Second World War she was a senior welfare worker with UNRRA working with displaced persons in Germany; see Sian Roberts, “‘In the Margins of Chaos’: Francesca Wilson and Education for all in the ‘Teachers’ Republic’,” History of Education 35, no. 6 (2006): 653–668.

¹⁹ Ibid., 200.

²² Wilson, Rebel Daughter, 200–1.

²⁰ Bertram Hawker, “Child Artistry from Vienna,” Record of the Save the Children Fund 3, no. 1 (1922): 54.

²¹ Wilson, Rebel Daughter, 200; Hawker spent some time in Australia before returning to England where he was ordained in 1900. From 1908 he lived on the Buxton estate at Runton Old Hall in Norfolk; for biographical information see Dirk and Mary E.B. Van Dissel, “Hawker, Bertram Robert (1868–1952),” in Australian Dictionary of National Biography, 14, Melbourne University Press, 1996, 410–411, http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A140470b.htm?hilite=Bertram%3BHawker (accessed February 20, 2009).

²³ Peter Cunningham, “The Montessori Phenomenon: Gender and Internationalism in early Twentieth‐Century Innovation,” in Practical Visionaries: Women, Education and Social Progres s ed. Mary Hilton and Pam Hirsch (Harlow: Pearson Education, 2000), 203–220.

²⁴ Obituary, The Times, October 21, 1952, 8.

²⁵ Three pamphlets and a book were produced: Francesca Mary Wilson, A Class at Professor Cizek’s: Subject – Autumn (London: Children’s Art Exhibition Fund, 1921); Francesca Mary Wilson, A Lecture by Professor Cizek (London: Children’s Art Exhibition Fund, 1921); Francesca Mary Wilson, The Child As Artist: Some Conversations with Professor Cizek (London: Children’s Art Exhibition Fund, 1921); Francesca Mary Wilson, Christmas: pictures by children with an introduction by Edmund Dulac (London and Vienna: J.M. Dent and Sons and Richter & Zöllner, 1922).

²⁶ The Times, November 18, 1920, 10.

²⁷ Ibid., as Wilson had worked in Serbia and was closely connected with Dr Katherine MacPhail’s children’s hospital there it is possible that the exhibition included work by Serbian children which was overshadowed in the reviews by Cizek and his pupils.

²⁸ “Paintings by Viennese Children,” Burlington Magazine 37, no. 212 (1920): 260.

²⁹ Sue Malvern, “The Ends of Innocence: modern art and modern children,” Art History 23 (2000): 627; for a chronology of publications and exhibitions relating to child art see Jonathan Fineberg, ed., When We Were Young: New Perspectives on the Art of the Child (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 2006), 199–271.

³⁰ Daily Sketch, November 19, 1920, 4.

³¹ The Times, November 18, 1920, 10; Murray had succeeded Dorothy Buxton and Eglantyne Jebb’s uncle Richard Claverhouse Jebb as professor of Greek at Glasgow University in 1889. He was also friendly with Jan Smuts who had prompted Hilda Clark’s initial visit to Vienna in 1919. See Christopher Stray, “Murray, (George) Gilbert Aimé (1866–1957),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/35159 (accessed February 20, 2009); for Clausen see Kenneth McConkey, “Clausen, Sir George (1852–1944),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/32435 (accessed February 20, 2009).

³² Murray is listed as a member of the Council and Economic Committee of the FFC in a collection of pamphlets at the British Library, 8275.s.5.

³³ Hawker, “Child Artistry from Vienna,” 54.

³⁴ Dorothy North, later North Haskins, was born in Chicago in 1886 and was educated at Bryn Mawr College. She worked at Hull House settlement, Chicago, 1910–1917. From 1917 to 1923 she undertook relief work for the American Friends Service Council in France, Austria and Russia. She lived in Ongar, Essex, 1935–1949, with her husband Sidney G. Haskins where she became involved in the Women’s Institute and also worked with the Women’s Voluntary Service with evacuees during the Second World War. She died in Illinois in 1962. Biographical information from the online catalogue Dorothy North Haskins Papers, Special Collections Department, Bryn Mawr College Library, http://www.brynmawr.edu/library/speccoll/guides/haskins.html (accessed January 5, 2005). Less is known about Skinner although she too was a relief worker in Vienna and visited Cizek’s classes. The minutes of the Austria and Hungary Sub‐committee of the Friends Emergency and War Victims Relief Committee 9 June 1921 record that Skinner joined the Arts and Crafts Department in Vienna and would take Wilson’s place when the latter left the Mission, Friends Library, London, FEWVRC/AH/M2, minute 1223.

³⁵ Bulletin of the Art Centre New York, December 1923, 115–120, NAEA Bretton Hall, Cizek Archive E3; Margaret Skinner, “Exhibition of the Work of Viennese Children,” Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 18, no. 12, part 1 (1923): 280–281.

³⁶ Western Association of Art Museum Directors, The Cizek Exhibition: Work of Children in Creative Art from Vienna Austria, 1925, exhibition catalogue, NAEA, Cizek Archive E6.

³⁷ Fuller, The Right of the Child, 101.

³⁸ The CAEF members were: Captain O. Ashford, Lena Ashwell, Mrs A.E. Balfour, Barclay Baron, Valentine Bell, Brigadier Catherine Booth, Clutton Brock, Father Paul Bull, Lawrence Christie, George Clausen RA, Maud Fletcher, Lucy Gardner, Bertram Hawker, Edmond Holmes, Lady Evelyn Jones, Hetty Lea, Prof. W.R. Lethaby, Sir Edwin Lutyens, Albert Mansbridge, Charlotte Mason, Alec Miller, Maude Royden, Sir Michael Sadler, Countess of Sandwich, Mrs Philip Snowden, Francesca Wilson, Henry Wilson.

³⁹ Wilson, The Child As Artist, 15.

⁴⁰ Ian Grosvenor, “‘The Art of Seeing’: Promoting Design in Education in 1930s England,” Paedagogica Historica 41, nos 4 & 5 (2005): 507–534; Eckhardt Fuchs, “Networks and the History of Education,” Paedagogica Historica 43, no. 2 (2007): 197.

⁴¹ It may be that trawling through the personal correspondence of members, where it exists, may yield additional information but this is beyond the scope of my current research project.

⁴² Liz Stanley, “Feminism and Friendship in England from 1825 to 1938: The Case of Olive Schreiner,” Studies in Sexual Politics 8 (Manchester: University of Manchester 1985): 10–46; Peter Cunningham, “Innovators, networks and structures; towards a prosopography of progressivism,” History of Education 30, no. 5 (2001): 433–451.

⁴³ These strands are followed up as part of my PhD study at the School of Education, University of Birmingham UK on Francesca Wilson entitled From the Margins of Chaos to the Strange Island: A Study in the Life of a Woman Teacher Activist.

⁴⁴ Cunningham, “Innovators, networks and structures,” 433–451.

⁴⁵ Ibid., 446–447; inevitably considerably less is known or can easily be discovered about the lives and activities of some of the women members; at the time of writing nothing is known about Maud Fletcher or Hetty Lea and comparatively little about the individual activities of the married women such as Mrs A.E. Balfour or the Countess of Sandwich.

⁴⁶ Congress report, Bulletin of the Save the Children Fund: Central Union, Geneva vol. 1, no. 6 March 10, 1920, British Library P.P.1098.ccc.

⁴⁷ Booth is a well‐known activist who undertook relief work with children in Europe after the First World War before going on to work with unmarried mothers and children as leader of the Salvation Army’s Women’s Social Work service; see Eva Burrows, “Booth, Catherine Bramwell (1883–1987),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/39871 (accessed February 20, 2009). Ethel Snowden (née Annakin) had a background in suffrage, peace campaigning and the Independent Labour Party (ILP) and she and her husband, the Labour Member of Parliament Philip Snowden, were supporters of the FFC. A former teacher, her international interests included the Women’s International League, the International Women’s Suffrage Alliance, and the League of Nations and she was present at the International Congress of Women in Vienna in 1921; see June Hannam, “Snowden, Ethel (1881–1951),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/48517 (accessed February 20, 2009).

⁴⁸ From 1917 Royden was a preacher at the City Temple Congregational Church in Holborn and in 1921 she established the Guildhouse as an ecumenical place of worship and social and cultural centre. She corresponded with fellow CAEF member Albert Mansbridge, and was connected to the Oxford University extension movement, a connection shared by several of the male CAEF members, through her relationship with Hudson Shaw; see Sheila Fletcher, “Royden, (Agnes) Maude (1876–1956),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/35861 (February 20, 2009).

⁴⁹ Kathleen Courtney Papers, Women’s Library London, 7/KDC/K12/13.

⁵⁰ John Ferguson, “The Fellowship of Reconciliation,” 1984, http://www.ifor.org/articles/IFOR_history_by_J._Ferguson_1984_-_Revised.doc (accessed February 20, 2009); the conference was held in Birmingham April 5–12, 1924, and included commissions on subjects such as “Education”, “Relation of the Sexes” and “Politics and Citizenship”, Conference Handbook (Birmingham: Birmingham Council for the COPEC Conference, 1924).

⁵¹ Alias Lena Margaret Pocock, later Lady Lena Simson through her second marriage to the surgeon Henry Simson in 1908; Maggie B. Gale, “Ashwell, Lena (1872–1957),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30476 (accessed February 20, 2009).

⁵² Conference report by Violet M. Potter MA, The New Era, Vols. I & II, Institute of Education Archives, WEF/295: 243–244.

⁵³ Fiona MacCarthy, “Wilson, Henry (1864–1934),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/38556 (accessed April 4, 2006). At the conference Wilson spoke on “The Creative Impulse Suppressed” and argued that “the educational process should be ‘creator‐making’” and that knowledge should be a “dynamic … power to meet social need,” see report by Violet M. Potter op. cit., 243.

⁵⁴ Leicester Museum Service. “Harry Peach and Dryad” http://www.gimson.leicester.gov.uk/leicesterdesigners/harry=Npeach- -dryad (accessed February 20, 2009); Francesca Mary Wilson, Professor Cizek Takes His Class (Leicester: Dryad Handicrafts, [c.1921]).

⁵⁵ Conference report by Violet M. Potter op. cit., 244.

⁵⁶ Cunningham, “The Montessori Phenomenon,” 213.

⁵⁷ Michael E. Sadler, “The Science of Childhood,” The World’s Children (1922): 134–137.

⁵⁸ Roy Lowe, “Sadler, Sir Michael Ernest (1861–1943),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/35905 (accessed February 20, 2009).

⁵⁹ Martin Bailey, Van Gough and Britain: Pioneer Collectors (Edinburgh: National Galleries of Scotland, 2006), 14, 21–29, 100; Who Was Who, 1961–1970, 4: 1000.

⁶⁰ W.A.C. Stewart, The Educational Innovators, Volume II: Progressive Schools 1881–1967 (London: Macmillan, 1968), 86–95.

⁶³ Ibid., 34.

⁶¹ “The Outlook Tower,” The New Era, January 3, 1922: 2–3, IoE Archives DC/WEF/VII/296.

⁶² The New Era 1, no. 2 [April] 1920: 67 IoE Archives DC/WEF/VII/295.

⁶⁴ See Refugee Children’s Evacuation Fund, The War as Seen by Children (London, 1943).

⁶⁵ Birmingham Post, June 21, 1921.

⁶⁶ Eckhardt Fuchs, “Educational Sciences, Morality and Politics: International Educational Congresses in the Early Twentieth Century,” Paedagogica Historica 40. nos 5 & 6 (2004): 757–784; Grosvenor, “‘The Art of Seeing’”; Ian Grosvenor, “‘Pleasing to the Eye and at the Same Time Useful in Purpose’: a historical exploration of educational exhibitions,” in Materialities of Schooling: Design–Technology–Objects–Routines, ed. Martin Lawn and Ian Grosvenor (Oxford: Symposium Books, 2005), 163–176; Margaret H. White, “Exhibiting Practices: paper as a site of communication and contested practice,” in Lawn and Grosvenor, op. cit., 177–199. For a recent study on the use of exhibitions as a means of popular patriotic education and the performance of citizenship during the First World War see Stefan Goebel, “Exhibitions,” in Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914–1919, Volume 2: A Cultural History, ed. Jay Winter and Jean‐Louis Robert (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 143–187.

⁶⁷ Fineberg, When We Were Young, 215–216; Stuart Macdonald, The History and Philosophy of Art Education (London: University of London Press, 1970), 342.

⁶⁸ Marion Richardson, Art and the Child (London: University of London Press, 1948), 59.

⁶⁹ Richardson, Art and the Child, 51.

⁷⁰ Robin Tanner, Double Harness (London: Impact Books, 2nd ed., 1990), 37–8. Tanner taught until 1935 when he became a school inspector.

⁷¹ Rosemary Devonald, ed., Basil Rocke: Artist and Teacher (Bristol: Redcliffe Press, 1989), 9, 31–33, 41–43. Rocke decided he wished to teach art as a result of reading a New Era article in the mid‐1920s and from 1946 was senior art adviser for the West Riding.

⁷² The Times, December 10, 1920, 6. Dulac produced a picture‐book of fairytales to raise funds for the French Red Cross during the war; Edmund Dulac, Edmund Dulac’s Picture Book for the French Red Cross (London, New York and Toronto: Hodder & Stoughton for the Daily Telegraph (1915).

⁷³ Wilson, Christmas op. cit.

⁷⁴ Wilson’s pamphlets, supplemented by a number of articles in journals to publicise the exhibition, are key texts in illustrating Cizek’s appeal to progressive educators at the time and became the main evidential basis for his teaching methods until the publications of his colleague Dr Wilhelm Viola in the 1930s and 1940s. Cizek, often heralded as a “pioneer” or “father” of child art, is a somewhat controversial figure with historians of art education debating over the degree to which his pedagogical techniques promoted self‐expression and agency in his pupils. See among others, Carline, Draw They Must, op. cit.; Macdonald, The History and Philosophy of Art Education, op. cit.; Bruce Holdsworth, “English Art Education between the wars,” Journal of Art and Design Education 3, no. 2 (1984): 161–179; Sue Malvern, “Inventing ‘Child Art’: Franz Cizek and Modernism,” British Journal of Aesthetics 35, no. 3 (1995): 262–72; Peter Smith, “Franz Cizek: The Patriarch,” Art Education 38, no. 2 (1985): 28–31; Gordon Sutton, Artisan or Artist: A History of the Teaching of Art and Crafts in English Schools (Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1967); Peter Smith, “Another Vision of Progressivism: Marion Richardson’s Triumph and Tragedy,” Studies in Art Education 37, no. 3 (1996): 170–183; Wilhelm Viola, Child Art and Franz Cizek, 2nd ed. (Vienna: Austrian Junior Red Cross, 1937); Wilhelm Viola, Child Art, 2nd ed. (London: University of London Press, 1942).

⁷⁵ Francesca Mary Wilson, Vienna Handicrafts (London: Friends Service Council, 1921).

⁷⁶ Austria and Hungary Sub‐committee, Friends Emergency and War Victims Relief Committee, Friends Library, London, FEWVRC/AH/M2; Western Association of Art Museum Directors, op. cit..

⁷⁷ Freeman, If Any Man Build, 52–53.

⁷⁸ Hawker, “Child Artistry from Vienna,” op. cit.

⁷⁹ Ibid., 52–54.

⁸⁰ Birmingham Post, June 21, 1921.

⁸¹ Bulletin of the Art Centre New York, December 1923, NAEA, Cizek Archive E3:120.

⁸² Western Association of Art Museum Directors, The Cizek Exhibition, op cit.

⁸³ Hawker, “Child Artistry from Vienna,” 52–53.

⁸⁴ Letter from Hawker to Jebb, July 16, 1922 and letter from SCF to Alice Clark, Austria Department, Friends Emergency and War Victims Relief Committee, October 3, 1922, SCF Archive, EJ 49.

⁸⁵ Letter from Alice Clark to Miss E. Sidgwick of SCF, July 19, 1922, SCF Archive, EJ 49.

⁸⁶ Letter SCF to Hawker, April 27, 1923, SCF Archive, EJ 49. The minute books of the Austria and Hungary Sub‐committee of the Friends Emergency War Victims Relief Committee show large amounts of money being transferred from the SCF to the Friends’ relief schemes in this period with references to grants as large as £10,000 and £15,000, Friends Library, London FEWVRC/AH/M1‐3.

⁸⁷ Refugee Children’s Evacuation Fund, The War as Seen by Children (London, 1943).

⁸⁸ Although I have found earlier references to art exhibitions being used to raise funds for children’s charities the art on display was by recognised, adult artists. Similarly, although there are several earlier exhibitions of art by children, such as the Royal Drawing Society exhibitions from 1890, these appear to have an educational or artistic purpose only.

⁸⁹ See Anthony Geist and Peter N. Carroll, They Still Draw Pictures: Children’s Art in Wartime from the Spanish Civil War to Kosovo (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2002).

⁹⁰ Holborn and West Central Committee for Spanish Medical Aid, Spain: The Child and the War (London, 1937).

⁹¹ Anne D. Dutlinger, ed., Art, Music, Education as Strategies for Survival: Theresienstadt 1941–45 (London and New York: Herodias, 2001). Friedl Dicker was born in Vienna in 1898 and studied and taught at the Bauhaus, 1919–1923. She was transported to Theresienstadt in 1942 and died in Auschwitz Birkenau in 1944. Kokoschka’s first exhibition was at the “Kunstschau”, Vienna in 1908 where his work was exhibited by the Viennese Secessionists alongside art by Cizek’s pupils. On the cultural persecution of Kokoschka see Jutta Vinzent, Identity and Image: Refugee Artists from Nazi Germany in Britain (1933–1945) (Weimar: VDG, 2006).

⁹² Refugee Children’s Evacuation Fund, Children’s Art from All Countries (London, 1941); The War as Seen by Children op. cit.

⁹³ Children’s Art from All Countries, op. cit.; The War as Seen by Children, op. cit. The 1941 and 1943 exhibitions were supported by organisations such as the SCF, a range of faith groups and individuals such as Eleanor Rathbone, Edith Pye, R.R. Tomlinson, A.S. Neill, Vivian Ogilvie, Susan Isaacs and Michael Sadler.

⁹⁴ No collection of drawings and paintings is known to survive in contrast with the 1920 Cizek exhibition where a large collection of the original artwork has been deposited with the National Art Education Archive at Bretton Hall. Much of the artwork is available online at http://www.artsedarchive.org.uk//collintro.aspx?cid=14 (accessed February 20, 2009)

⁹⁵ See for example Wilson, In the Margins of Chaos, op. cit., and Francesca Mary Wilson, Portraits and Sketches of Serbia (London: Swarthmore Press, 1920).

⁹⁶ Wilson, A Lecture by Professor Cizek, 9–10; similarly in Francesca Mary Wilson, “An interview with Professor Cizek illustrated by his pupils,” The Beacon (1921): 262–66, NAEA, Cizek Papers D4, she speculates very briefly on the psychological potential of the children’s work for studying “all sorts of influences on the child – sex, race, society, school, civilisation, etc.” but does not go into detail.

⁹⁷ Susan Hogan, Healing Arts: The History of Art Therapy (Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley, 2001), 290–301.

⁹⁸ Nicholas Stargardt, Witnesses of War: Children’s Lives under the Nazis (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005), 271; see also Nicholas Stargardt, “Children’s Art of the Holocaust,” Past and Present 161 (November 1998): 191–235; Spain: The Child and the War, op. cit., 4.

⁹⁹ Reproduced in The War as Seen by Children op. cit.

¹⁰¹ The War as Seen by Children, op. cit., 4–6.

¹⁰⁰ In this the organisers can be viewed as “minor utopians” of the twentieth century as identified in Jay Winter, Dreams of Peace and Freedom: Utopian Moments in the 20^th Century (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 2006).

¹⁰² Ibid., 8–10.

¹⁰³ For examples of recent discussions of the child’s voice see for example Derrick Armstrong, “Historical Voices: philosophical idealism and the methodology of “voice” in the history of education,” History of Education 32 no. 2 (2003): 201–217; Ning de Coninck‐Smith, “The Panopticon of Childhood: Harold E. Jones Child Study Center, Berkeley, California, 1946–1960,” Paedagogica Historica 41, nos 4 and 5 (2005): 505–506; Ian Grosvenor, “‘Seen but not Heard’: City Childhoods from the Past into the Present,” Paedagogica Historica 43, no. 3 (2007): 405–429.

¹⁰⁴ For recent discussions of hidden internationalisms see Anne Summers, “Gaps in the record: Hidden Internationalisms,” History Workshop Journal 52 (2001): 217–227; Martin Lawn, “Reflecting the Passion: Mid‐century Projects for Education,” History of Education 33, no. 3 (2004): 505–513; Martin Lawn, “Circulations and Exchanges: Emergence of Scientific Cosmopolitanism in Educational Research” (paper presented at the Congress of Historical Sciences, Sydney, 2005); June Hannam, “International Dimensions of Women’s Suffrage: ‘at the crossroads of several interlocking identities’,” Women’s History Review 14, nos 3 & 4 (2005): 543–560; Anne Summers, “Which Women? What Europe? Josephine Butler and the International Abolitionist Federation,” History Workshop Journal 62 (2006):214–31; Grosvenor, “The Art of Seeing” op. cit.; Joyce Goodman, “Working for Change Across International Borders: the Association of Headmistresses and Education for International Citizenship,” Paedagogica Historica 43, no. 1 (2007): 165–180.

¹⁰⁵ See also White, “Exhibiting Practices,” 195–197.

¹⁰⁹ Wilson, “Professor Cizek’s Children,” 95.

¹⁰⁶ Francesca Mary Wilson, “Professor Cizek’s Children,” The Nation, January 23, 1924, 95.

¹⁰⁷ Cunningham, “Innovators, networks and structures,” 433–451; White, “Exhibiting Practices,” 177.

¹⁰⁸ See for example an American Friends Service Council online exhibition of children’s art from Kosovo, http://webarchive.afsc.org/ewnews/kosart.htm (accessed February 20, 2009). This article began during a visit to a children’s art exhibition held in Birmingham during Refugee Week 2005, see Belonging Artchallenge 2006 Calendar (London: Angel Group, 2005).