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Articles

Retelling the past, inspiring the future: Waffen-SS commemorations and the creation of a ‘European’ far-right counter-narrative

Pages 420-444 | Published online: 02 Nov 2016
 

ABSTRACT

Heinrich Himmler created the Waffen-SS in part as a multinational force, willing to fight for a New Europe based on Germanic blood. After the war, many international Waffen-SS units formed veterans' associations (VAs). Like other VAs, these provided veterans with the chance to engage in ‘memory work’ and to keep alive a sense of comradeship and of valiant sacrifice, as well as an emotional commitment to the fallen. Waffen-SS veterans were, however, alone in celebrating their ‘sacrifices’. Others shunned them for their participation in atrocities. To defend themselves, they developed a counter-hegemonic Second World War narrative that presented the Waffen-SS as uniquely heroic ‘European’ volunteers' against Bolshevism. This counter-narrative, however, only gained resonance with the fall of the Berlin Wall. After 1989, in fact, veterans could seek out and establish sites of public commemoration, not in Western but in Eastern Europe. Hurd and Werther use veterans' journals and books to explore the redeployment of SS ideology in a revisionist version of history. They examine the resurrection of a mass Waffen-SS graveyard in East Ukraine as a telling case history, discussing, not least, the implications of a ‘reconciliation’ of the former German soldiers with both Ukrainian villagers and Red Army veterans. Finally, they explore the significance of the veterans' ‘European’ counter-history for a younger generation of neo-Nazis.

Notes

1 At the moment of writing this area is part of the self-proclaimed Donetsk People’s Republic.

2 ‘Uspenskaja/Uspenka’, in the ‘Listenansicht Kriegsgräberstätten’, available on the Volksbund Deutsche Kriegsgräberfürsorge website at www.volksbund.de/kriegsgraeberstaette/uspenskaja-uspenka.html (viewed 7 September 2016).

3 ‘Eine deutsch-polnische Schülerbegegnung, der Festungsfriedhof Modlin und das Thema “Waffen-SS”’, available on the Justus-von-Liebig-Schule Hannover website at www.jvl.de/cms-schueler/berichte/2009/das-jahr-2009.html (viewed 7 September 2016).

4 Steffen Werther, SS-Vision und Grenzland-Realität: Vom Umgang dänischer und ‘volksdeutscher’ Nationalsozialisten in Sønderjylland mit der ‘großgermanischen’ Ideologie der SS (Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis 2012), 134–5.

5 Quoted in Bernd Wegner, Hitlers Politische Soldaten: Die Waffen-SS 1933–1945 (Paderborn: Schöningh 2006), 298.

6 Heinrich Himmler, Geheimreden 1933–45 und andere Ansprachen, ed. Bradley Smith and Agnes Peterson (Frankfurt am Main: Propyläen Verlag 1974), 38–49; Josef Ackermann, Heinrich Himmler als Ideologe (Göttingen: Musterschmidt 1970), 276–84; N.K.C.A. in’t Veld (ed.), De SS en Nederland: Documenten uit SS-Archieven 1935–1945, vol. 1 (The Hague: Nijhoff 1976), Doc. 209, 804.

7 ‘Richtlinien für das III. germanische Panzerkorps', 25 May 1943, Doc. 9, in Bernd Wegner, ‘Auf dem Wege zur pangermanischen Armee: Dokumente zum III (germanischen) SS-Panzerkorps’, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, vol. 28, 1980, 101–36 (123–4).

8 According to Himmler, they were supposed to form a ‘Germanischen Blutswall’: Himmler's speech, 29 February 1940, quoted in Himmler, Geheimreden 1933–45 und andere Ansprachen, 142.

9 Wegner, Hitlers Politische Soldaten, 299.

10 The foreign component of ‘Wiking’ volunteers—eventually comprising ten nations—was never larger than 10 per cent of the whole. Claus Bundgård Christensen, Niels Bo Poulsen and Peter Scharff Smith, Under hagekors og Dannebrog: Danskere i Waffen SS 1940–45, 2nd edn (Copenhagen: Aschehoug 2002), 87.

11 Ibid., 94; Terje Emberland and Matthew Kott, Himmlers Norge: Nordmenn I det storgermanske prosjekt (Oslo: Aschehoug 2012), 237–47 (246); George Stein, Geschichte der Waffen-SS (Düsseldorf: DrosteVerlag 1967), 245; Ola Flyum, ‘Olav Tuff (91): Vi brente en kirke med sivilister’, 1 October 2013, available on the NRK website at www.nrk.no/fordypning/1.11262316 (viewed 8 September 2016).

12 Karsten Wilke, Die ‘Hilfsgemeinschaft auf Gegenseitigkeit’ (HIAG): Veteranen der Waffen-SS in der Bundesrepublik (Paderborn: Schöningh 2011).

13 See ibid.

14 For invitations to bequeath money to the Kriegsgräberstiftung, see, for example, ‘Hinweis zur erbrechtlichenVerfügung’, in the organization's newsletter Kriegsgräberstiftung—Wenn alle Brüder schweigen, Mitteilungsblatt, no. 2, May 2004.

15 For the Vietnam VAs, see, for example, Mary Bruzzese, ‘Mission accomplished: VVA and the Texas Capitol Vietnam Veterans Monument’, July/August 2014; ‘A monumental tribute’, July/August 2014; and Richard Burton, ‘Love a parade’, July/August 2014: all available on The VVA Veteran Online website at http://vvaveteran.org/34-4/34-4_index.html, http://vvaveteran.org/34-4/34-4_amherst.html and http://vvaveteran.org/34-4/34-4_ch542.html, respectively (viewed 9 September 2016). For the Korean War, see Jerry Seymour, ‘The where, when, and why of the Korean War: tell America’, The Graybeards, vol. 28, no. 2, March–April 2014, 28–9, entire issue available on the Korean War Veterans Association website at www.kwva.org/graybeards/gb_14/gb_1404/gb_1404_final.pdf (viewed 9 September 2016); for political and commemorative activities, see also ‘News . . . Stories . . . Topics of Interest’, available on the homepage of the same website at www.kwva.org (viewed 9 September 2016).

16 See Jürgen Müller, ‘Bericht über unsere Estlandreise im Juli 1998’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 44, no. 12, December 1998; and Hans-Dietrich Sauer, ‘Leserbrief’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 45, no. 2, February 1999.

17 Paul Allen, ‘The warrior's code of honor’, 15 October 2012 (emphasis in the original), available online at http://www.militarycodeofhonor.com/WarriorsCodeofHonor/ (viewed 9 September 2016). This text has many appreciative commentaries and offers to publicize further by fellow-veterans, editors of US military publications, post-traumatic stress disorder counsellors and others.

18 ‘60. Jahresfeier einer HIAG-Kameradschaft’, Ein Fähnlein, no. 3, 2012, describing a Waffen-SS veterans’ meeting where both songs were sung. For lyrics, see ‘Wenn alle untreu werden’ and ‘Der gute Kamerad’, available on The LiedNet Archive at www.lieder.net/lieder/get_text.html?TextId=12170andTextId=16025, respectively. For an academic analysis of the latter, as well as First World War postcards illustrating the theme, see Hermanitou, ‘Ich hatt’ einen Kameraden: Lieder, die wir ablehnen und trotzdem kennen’ (blog), 19 April 2010, available on the Der Freitag website at www.freitag.de/autoren/hermanitou/ich-hatt-einen-kameraden-lieder-die-wir-ablehnen-und-trotzdem-kennen. For further citation and illustration, see ‘Zum Gedenken’, available on the Bayerische Kameraden- und Soldatenvereinigung website at www.bkv-ev.de (all viewed 9 September 2016).

19 ‘Customer comments’ by Larry and Debbie Sanich, 7–20 March 2010, and Elaine Feerick, 9–22 August 2009, available on the Vietnam Battlefield Tours website at www.vietnambattlefieldtours.com/ap/comments.asp (viewed 9 September 2016).

20 For German Wehrmacht veterans, see Bert-Oliver Manig, Politik der Ehre: die Rehabilitierung der Berufssoldaten in der frühen Bundesrepublik (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag 2004); and Birgit Schwelling, Heimkehr—Erinnerung—Integration: Der Verband der Heimkehrer, die ehemaligen Kriegsgefangenen und die westdeutsche Nachkriegsgesellschaft (Paderborn: Schöningh 2010).

21 ‘Wir über uns: Ziele und Aufgaben’, available on the Bayerische Kameraden- und Soldatenvereinigung website at www.bkv-ev.de; ‘Die Aufgaben des VdS’, formerly on the Verband deutscher Soldaten website (no longer available), see rather www.web.archive.org/web/20140327220045/ http://www.verband-deutscher-soldaten.de/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=90&Itemid=18 (both viewed 26 September 2016).

22 Wegner, Hitlers Politische Soldaten, 298.

23 Benno H. Schaeppi, Germanische Freiwillige im Osten (Nuremberg: F. Willmy 1943), 9. See also the propaganda booklet Die germanische Revolution, available online at www.archive.org/details/Generalkommando-III-SS-Panzerkorps-VI-Die-germanische-Revolution (viewed 13 September 2016).

24 Wegner, ‘Auf dem Wege zur pangermanischen Armee’, Doc. 8, 122–3.

25 Letter from Heinrich Himmler to Gottlob Berger, 23 April 1940, quoted in ibid., 101.

26 Jürgen Förster, ‘Der Aspekt des Kreuzzuges’, in Horst Boog, Jürgen Förster, Joachim Hoffmann, Ernst Klink, Rolf-Dieter Müller and Gerd R. Ueberschär (eds), Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg: 4 Der Angriff auf die Sowjetunion (Frankfurt am Main: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt 1991), 1081–4.

27 Werther, SS-Vision und Grenzland-Realität, 169–72.

28 See Wilke, Die ‘Hilfsgemeinschaft auf Gegenseitigkeit’ (HIAG).

29 Felix Steiner, Die Freiwilligen der Waffen-SS: Idee und Opfergang (Preuss. Oldendorf: Verlag K. W. Schültz KG 1958).

30 Ibid., 160, 146.

31 Ibid.

32 Felix Steiner, Die Armee der Geächteten (Göttingen: Plesse Verlag 1963), 80, 82, 233–4.

33 Steiner, Die Freiwilligen der Waffen-SS, 42, 68, 80.

34 Ibid., 83–4, 294.

35 ‘Jubiläumsfestschrift des Kameradenwerk Korps Steiner’, 1993 (copy of newsletter in author's possession).

36 Ibid.

37 Stefan Troebst, ‘Jalta versus Stalingrad, Gulag versus Holocaust: Konfligierende Erinnerungskulturen im größeren Europa’, Berliner Journal für Soziologie, vol. 15, no. 3, 2005, 381–400; on the same theme, see Meike Wulf, ‘The struggle for official recognition of “displaced” group memories in post-Soviet Estonia’, in Michal Kopeček (ed.), Past in the Making: Historical Revisionism in Central Europe after 1989 (Budapest: Central European University Press 2008), 217–41; and Chiara Bottici, ‘European identity and the politics of remembrance’, in Karin Tilmans, Frank van Vree and Jay Winter (eds), Performing the Past: Memory, History, and Identity in Modern Europe (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press 2010), 335–60.

38 See also Steffen Werther and Madeleine Hurd, ‘Go East, old man: the ritual spaces of SS veterans’ memory work’, Culture Unbound, vol. 6, no. 2, 2014, 327–59.

39 Peter Strassner, Europäische Freiwillige: Geschichte die 5. SS-Panzer-division Wiking (Osnabrück: Munin Verlag 1968), 84; Christensen, Poulsen and Smith, Under hagekors og Dannebrog, 110–12.

40 Eberhard F. Heder, ‘Eine Reise nach Uspenskaja’, Der Freiwillge, vol. 39, no. 2, February 1993.

41 Ehrhard Schmidt, ‘Marienfels und Uspenskaja: ein Vergleich’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 50, no. 11, November 2004.

42 Heder, ‘Eine Reise nach Uspenskaja’.

43 Manuel Ochsenreiter, ‘Das Wunder von Uspenskaja’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 52, no. 1, January 2006.

44 Eberhard Heder, ‘Gedenkstätte Uspenka. Vorwort im Namensbuch: Wer kennt die Völker, nennt die Namen’, Unser Wiking Ruf, no. 11, 2006, 133.

45 Ehrhard Schmidt, ‘Das Kreuz von Uspenskaja’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 29, no. 9, September 1993.

46 Quoted in ibid.

47 Dieter Bunge, ‘Der Soldatenfriedhof bei den drei Kreuzen’, Kameraden: Unabhängige Zeitschrift für alte und junge Soldaten, no. 11, 2007.

48 Heder, ‘Gedenkstätte Uspenka’.

49 Dieter Bunge, ‘Der Soldatenfriedhof bei den drei Kreuzen: Uspesnkaja 1942–2007’, Unser Wiking Ruf, no. 12, 2007, 146–50 (147).

50 On friendly villagers, for instance, see U. K., ‘Mit Veteranen der Division “Wiking” nach Uspenskaja’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 41, no. 8, August 1995; Ehrhard Schmidt, ‘Mit Flugzeug und Schiff nach Uspenskaja’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 41, no. 11, November 1995; Schmidt, ‘Das Kreuz von Uspenskaja’; Schmidt, ‘Marienfels und Uspenskaja’; Ochsenreiter, ‘Das Wunder von Uspenskaja’; Ehrhard Schmidt, ‘Es spricht der Bürgermeister von Uspenka’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 54, no. 1–2, January/February 2008.

51 Heinz Wilkening, ‘Ehrenhain der Division “Wiking”’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 44, no. 3, March 1998.

52 Ibid.

53 Heder, ‘Gedenkstätte Uspenka’.

54 Heinz Keith, ‘Erneuter Besuch 2006 in Uspenka’, Unser Wiking Ruf, no. 11, 2006, 136–8.

55 See Kriegsgräberstiftung—Wenn alle Brüder schweigen, Mitteilungsblatt, no. 3, 2007; and Bunge, ‘Der Soldatenfriedhof bei den drei Kreuzen: Uspesnkaja 1942–2007’.

56 Bunge, ‘Der Soldatenfriedhof bei den drei Kreuzen: Uspenskaja 1942–2007’.

57 Dieter Bunge, ‘Die Zukunft des Kriegsgräber-Friedhofs in Uspenka’, Unser Wiking Ruf, vol. 11, 2006, 132.

58 Schmidt, ‘Marienfels und Uspenskaja’.

59 Schmidt, ‘Es spricht der Bürgermeister von Uspenka’.

60 Ochsenreiter, ‘Das Wunder von Uspenskaja’.

61 Julius Weinmann, ‘Gedenkstein in Budaörs (Ungarn) auf Druck des Auswärtigen Amtes in Berlin abgebrochen’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 50, no. 10, October 2004.

62 For the amounts, see Kriegsgräberstiftung—Wenn alle Brüder schweigen, Mitteilungsblatt, no. 1, March 2004; and ‘Verwendung von Spendengeldern’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 46, no. 8, August 2000.

63 Kriegsgräberstiftung—Wenn alle Brüder schweigen, Mitteilungsblatt, no. 4, October 2004, and no. 5, December 2004.

64 ‘Ein Verein übernimmt nach 64 Jahren die Verantwortung für den Friedhof der Division Wiking’, Der Wiking Ruf, no. 10, 2005, 107–10.

65 For the visit in May 2008, see Harry Cooper, ‘The 5th SS battlefield at Uspienka, Ukraine’, available on the Sharkhunters International website at www.sharkhunters.com/Uspenka.htm (viewed 14 September 2016). See also Heder, ‘Eine Reise’.

66 Wilkening, ‘Ehrenhain der Division “Wiking”’; Heder, ‘Gedenkstätte Uspenka’.

67 Heder, ‘Gedenkstätte Uspenka’; Wilkening, ‘Ehrenhain der Division “Wiking”’.

68 See, for example, Schmidt, ‘Das Kreuz von Uspenskaja’; Schmidt, ‘Mit Flugzeug und Schiff nach Uspenskaja’; and Keith, ‘Erneuter Besuch 2006 in Uspenka’.

69 Hermann Welcher, ‘Von Wolgograd bis Moskau’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 44, no. 12, December 1998.

70 Heder, ‘Gedenkstätte Uspenka’.

71 U. K., ‘Mit Veteranen der Division “Wiking” nach Uspenskaja’.

72 Heinz Keith, ‘Reise 2007 zum Friedhof Uspenka’, Unser Wiking Ruf, vol. 12, 2007.

73 N. N., ‘Millionen für Stalins Siegerdenkmal in Berlin’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 46, no. 11, November 2000; Kriegsgräberstiftung—Wenn alle Brüder schweigen, Mitteilungsblatt, no. 4, October 2004.

74 Heder, ‘Gedenkstätte Uspenka’.

75 K. M., ‘Das Europafest in der Lüneburger Heide’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 41, no. 8, August 1995.

76 Walter Fanta and Valentin Sima (eds), ‘Stehst mitten drin im Land’: Das europäische Kameradentreffen auf dem Kärntner Ulrichsberg von den Anfängen bis heute (Klagenfurt: Drava 2003). See also ‘Der Ulrichsberg: Europas heiliger Berg’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 37, no. 12, December 1991.

77 ‘Junge Europäer treffen Zeugen des Krieges’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 46, no. 3, March 2001.

78 Störtebeker, ‘Nationales Gedenken an die Verteidigung von Budapest gegen die RoteArmee’, available on the www.meidling.forum.at website at www.meidling-forum.at/forum/viewtopic.php?p=20627&sid=f8adaa0465a45f571c010f6d3d8d4d6 (viewed 14 September 2016).

79 Heid Rühl, Hubert Meyer and Hermann Buch, ‘Zum Geleit fürDer Freiwillige’, Der Freiwillige, vol. 43, no. 1, January 1997.

80 See, for example, invitations and reports on visits posted by the Swedish far right on the website Info-14: ‘Under blå himmel i de blå bergen’, 1 August 2006, https://web.archive.org/web/20130605051301/http://www.info14.com/2006-08-01-under_bla_himmel_i_de_bla_bergen.html; ‘Veteranträff för frihetskämpar: info-14 på plats i Estland’, 2 August 2005, www.web.archive.org/web/20110819103137/http://www.info14.com/2005-08-02-veterantraff_for_frihetskampar__info-14_pa_plats_i_estland.html; ‘Semesterreportage från Estland’, 2 August 2008, https://web.archive.org/web/20101124151124/http://info14.com/2008-08-02-semesterreportage_fran_estland.html; and, on the Stormfront website, ‘SS veteran meeting in Estonia 2013?’, 27 July 2013, www.stormfront.org/forum/t943901-3 (all viewed 14 September 2016).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Madeleine Hurd

Madeleine Hurd is Associate Professor in Modern History at Södertörn University in Stockholm. Her recent publications include ‘The Militant Media of Neo-Nazi Environmentalism’ (with Steffen Werther), in Heike Graf (ed.), The Environment in the Age of the Internet (OpenBook 2016); ‘Nature, the Volk, and the Heimat: The Narratives and Practices of the Far Right Ecologist’ (with Steffen Werther), in Baltic Worlds (2013) and (as editor) Bordering the Baltic (Lit Verlag 2010). Email: [email protected]

Steffen Werther

Steffen Werther is Senior Lecturer at the Institute of Contemporary History, Södertörn University in Stockholm. His recent publications include SS-Vision und Grenzland-Realität (ACTA 2012); ‘Nordic-Germanic Dreams and National Realities’, in Weiss-Wendt and Yeomans (eds), Racial Science in Hitler's New Europe (University of Nebraska Press 2013); and ‘Go East, Old Man: The Ritual Spaces of SS Veterans’ Memory Work' (with Madeleine Hurd), in Culture Unbound (2014). Email: [email protected]

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