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ABSTRACT
Rodríguez Maeso and Araújo analyse the reproduction of a dominant understanding of racism in policy discourses of integration and discrimination used by monitoring agencies in Portuguese and European Union (EU) institutional contexts. More specifically, they question the political concern over racism and discrimination vis-à-vis the idea of Europe ‘becoming increasingly diverse’ and the need to gather ‘evidence’ of discrimination. To that end, they examine periodic reports issued by EU monitoring agencies since the 1990s—paying specific attention to reporting on school segregation of Roma pupils in Portugal—and national integration policies and initiatives that, since the 2000s, have targeted mainly Roma and black families and youth. They argue that the dominant discourse of integration and cultural diversity conceives of racism as external to European political culture, and as a ‘factor’ of the ‘conflictive nature’ of social interactions in ethnoracially heterogeneous settings. This paves the way for calls for the ‘strengthening of social cohesion’—on the assumption that policy initiatives need to act on the ‘characteristics’ of so-called ‘vulnerable’ populations—whereas institutional arrangements and everyday practices remain unchallenged.
Notes
1 T. W. Adorno, ‘Types and syndromes', in T. W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Daniel J. Levinson and R. Nevitt Sanford, The Authoritarian Personality, Studies in Prejudice Series, vol. 1 (New York: Harper & Brothers 1950), 744–83 (748).
2 Max Horkheimer and Samuel H. Flowerman, ‘Foreword to Studies in Prejudice’, in ibid., v–viii (v).
3 EUMC, Looking Reality in the Face: The Situation regarding Racism and Xenophobia in the European Community. Annual Report 1998. Part II, Dir/EZ-EUMC/177 (Vienna: EUMC 1999), 76, available on the FRA website at https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/1944-AR_1998_part2-en.pdf (viewed 5 December 2016).
4 Ibid.
5 See Julian Henriques, ‘Social psychology and the politics of racism’, in Julian Henriques, Wendy Hollway, Cathy Urwin, Couze Venn and Valerie Walkerdine, Changing the Subject: Psychology, Social Regulation and Subjectivity [1984] (London and New York: Routledge 1998), 60–90.
6 The use of disease metaphors to speak of racism is not recent. For instance, in her analysis of British media coverage of the publication of the Scarman (1981) and Macpherson (1999) reports, Sarah Neal observes how the disease metaphor was prevalent in the former. Headlines and slogans, such as ‘The hatred that is poisoning all Britain’, ‘The disease that threatens our survival’, ‘The search for remedies' or ‘The cures for Brixton’, dominated media reaction to the Scarman report, published following civil unrest in Brixton. See Sarah Neal, ‘The Scarman Report, the Macpherson Report and the media: how newspapers respond to race-centred social policy interventions’, Journal of Social Policy, vol. 32, no. 1, 2003, 55–74 (64). The use of this type of metaphor has also been documented in public speeches in South Africa during the 1990s, where racism was seen as a ‘poison of our nation’s soul’, ‘a deadly tumour’ and ‘a cancer’: Saskia Malan, ‘Conceptual metaphors in South African political speeches (1994–2001)’, Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics, vol. 38, 2008, 73–106 (91).
7 See Henriques, ‘Social psychology and the politics of racism’, 62.
8 See Barnor Hesse, ‘Im/plausible deniability: racism’s conceptual double bind’, Social Identities, vol. 10, no. 1, 2004, 9–29.
9 Horkheimer and Flowerman, ‘Foreword to Studies in Prejudice’, vii.
10 Politico-academic formulations of the notion of integration as related to the liberal principle of equal opportunities have circulated since the 1960s in the United Kingdom (see David Gillborn, ‘Race’, Ethnicity and Education: Teaching and Learning in Multi-Ethnic Schools (London: Unwin Hyman 1990), 139) and, since the 1940s in the United States, with, for instance, Gunnar Myrdal’s work. See Silvia Rodríguez Maeso and Beatriz Cavia, ‘Esquivando el racismo: el paradigma de la “integración” en las sociedades europeas y vasca contemporáneas’, in Ignacio Irazutza and María Martínez (eds), De la identidad a la vulnerabilidad: Alteridad e integración en el País Vasco contemporáneo (Barcelona: Edicions Bellaterra 2014), 151–94 (154–9).
11 European Commission, Directorate General for Employment, Industrial Relations and Social Affairs (DGV), Legal Instruments to Combat Racism and Xenophobia (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities 1993), 6, available on the EU Bookshop website at http://bookshop.europa.eu/en/legal-instruments-to-combat-racism-and-xenophobia-pbCE7793740/ (viewed 5 December 2016).
12 We approach policies not as ‘discrete decisions’ but as ‘a system of knowledge and beliefs—ideas about the causes of social problems, assumptions about how a society works and notions about appropriate solutions’: David K. Cohen and Michael S. Garet, ‘Reforming educational policy with applied social research’, Harvard Educational Review, vol. 45, no. 1, 1975, 17–43 (21).
13 David Theo Goldberg, The Threat of Race: Reflections on Racial Neoliberalism (Oxford and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell 2009), 151–98 (189).
14 See Paul Gilroy, ‘The end of antiracism’, in James Donald and Ali Rattansi, ‘Race’, Culture, and Difference (London: Sage Publications 1992), 49–61; and David Gillborn, Racism and Antiracism in Real Schools: Theory, Policy, Practice (Buckingham: Open University Press 1995).
15 See Alana Lentin, ‘Europe and the silence about race’, European Journal of Social Theory, vol. 11, no. 4, 2008, 487–503.
16 The term ‘Roma’ is widely used and endorsed today by the Council of Europe. Nonetheless, it should be noted that the term ‘Gypsy’ has been used by several grassroots movements in Portugal and Spain.
17 Research carried out within the international project TOLERACE (see the introduction to this special issue).
18 The annual reports by the EUMC/FRA cover the 1998–2009 period, but we also analysed the report prepared by the International Institute of Human Rights in Strasbourg: DGV, Legal Instruments to Combat Racism and Xenophobia. This report drew on national reports from various member states, within the framework of the European Commission's resolution on the fight against racism and xenophobia adopted in the 29 May 1990 meeting (2). We consider it a significant precedent to the establishment of the EUMC in 1997. Regarding the ECRI, we analysed the documents on its launch and mandate and, following its country-by-country approach, we examined the four published reports on Portugal (published in 1998, 2002, 2007 and 2013).
19 This is particularly the case in regard to countries where the EUMC considers immigration to be new, such as ‘Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Finland, Ireland, and, to some extent, Denmark’, which are contrasted to countries with ‘a colonial past and also an early experience with foreign workers (e.g. France, the UK, the Netherlands)’: EUMC, Migrants, Minorities and Education: Documenting Discrimination and Integration in 15 Member States of the European Union (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities 2004), 10, also 92, available on the FRA website at http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2004/migrants-minorities-and-education (viewed 15 November 2016). See also Marta Araújo, ‘Challenging narratives on diversity and immigration in Portugal: the (de)politicization of colonialism and racism’, in Philip Kretsedemas, Jorge Capetillo-Ponce and Glenn Jacobs (eds), Migrant Marginality: A Transnational Perspective (London and New York: Routledge 2013), 27–46.
20 EUMC, Looking Reality in the Face, 20.
21 FRA, EU-MIDIS at a Glance: Introduction to the FRA's EU-wide Discrimination Survey (Vienna: FRA 2009), 4 (emphasis added), available on the FRA website at http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/414-EU-MIDIS_GLANCE_EN.pdf (viewed 5 December 2016).
22 We follow here Wendy Brown's understanding of depoliticization as a process that ‘involves removing a political phenomenon from comprehension of its historical emergence and from a recognition of the powers that produce and contour it. No matter its particular form and mechanics, depoliticization always eschews power and history in the representation of its subjects.’: Wendy Brown, Regulating Aversion: Tolerance in the Age of Identity and Empire (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 2006), 15 (emphasis in the original).
23 Barnor Hesse and S. Sayyid, ‘Narrating the political postcolonial and the immigrant imaginary’, in N. Ali, V. S. Kalra and S. Sayyid (eds), A Postcolonial People: South Asians in Britain (New York: Columbia University Press 2008), 13–31 (22–3).
24 On race and the idea of Europe, see Aníbal Quijano, ‘Coloniality of power, Eurocentrism, and Latin America’, Nepantla: Views from South, vol. 1, no. 3, 2000, 533–80; and Barnor Hesse, ‘Racialized modernity: an analytics of white mythologies’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 30, no. 4, 2007, 643–63.
25 Council of Europe, ‘Second Summit of Heads of State and Government (Strasbourg, 10–11 October 1997): Final Declaration and Action Plan’, CM(97)169, Strasbourg, 11 October 1997, 4 (emphasis in original), available on the Council of Europe website at https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=593437# (viewed 17 November 2016). See also the Council of Europe [First] Summit, ‘Vienna Declaration’, Decl-09.10.93, Vienna, 9 October 1993, available on the Council of Europe website at https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=621771 (viewed 17 November 2016).
26 Goldberg, The Threat of Race, 5.
27 Henriques, ‘Social psychology and the politics of racism’, 71–80.
28 DGV, Legal Instruments to Combat Racism and Xenophobia; EUMC, Looking Reality in the Face; EUMC, Racism and Xenophobia in the EU Member States: Trends, Developments and Good Practice in 2002. Annual Report–Part 2 (Vienna: EUMC 2002), available on the FRA website at http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/131-AR_02_part2_EN.pdf (viewed 5 December 2016).
29 EUMC, Looking Reality in the Face, 19.
30 DGV, Legal Instruments to Combat Racism and Xenophobia, 12 (emphasis added).
31 EUMC, Looking Reality in the Face, 19 (emphasis added).
32 EUMC, Migrants’ Experiences of Racism and Xenophobia in 12 EU Member States. Pilot Study (Vienna: EUMC 2006), 124 (emphasis added), available on the FRA website at http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/224-Migrants-Experiences-web.pdf (viewed 5 December 2016).
33 Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Random House 1967). For a genealogy of the notion of institutional racism, see Barnor Hesse, ‘Discourse on institutional racism: the genealogy of a concept’, in Ian Law, Deborah Phillips and Laura Turney, Institutional Racism in Higher Education (Stoke on Trent: Trentham Books 2004), 131–47.
34 For instance, it is very telling that in conferences we have attended to present this project's findings, we tend to be disproportionately questioned about our definition of racism, in a way that our colleagues working on notions of tolerance, social cohesion, radicalization, immigration and human rights are not.
35 See Philomena Essed and Kwame Nimako, ‘Designs and (co)incidents: cultures of scholarship and public policy on immigrants/minorities in the Netherlands’, International Journal of Comparative Sociology, vol. 47, no. 3–4, 2006, 281–312.
36 ECRI, General Policy Recommendation No. 7: On National Legislation to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination, CRI(2003)8, adopted 13 December 2002 (Strasbourg: ECRI 2003), 5, available on the Council of Europe website at www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/activities/GPR/EN/Recommendation_N7/ecri03-8%20recommendation%20nr%207.pdf (viewed 17 November 2016); see also FRA, ‘Data collection and research activities on racism and xenophobia in the EUMC (1998–2006): lessons learned for the EU Fundamental Rights Agency’, Working Paper (Vienna: FRA 2007), 29–30.
37 See Hesse, ‘Im/plausible deniability’, 24.
38 See Henriques, ‘Social psychology and the politics of racism’; and David Theo Goldberg, ‘Racism and rationality: the need for a new critique’, Philosophy of the Social Sciences, vol. 20, no. 3, 1990, 317–50.
39 For a critique of the idea of the ‘racist subject’, see, for instance, Philomena Essed, Understanding Everyday Racism: An Interdisciplinary Theory (Newbury Park, CA, London and Delhi: Sage 1991).
40 FRA, EU-MIDIS Technical Report: Methodology, Sampling and Fieldwork (Vienna: FRA 2009), 6, available on the FRA website at http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/eu-midis_technical_report.pdf (viewed 17 November 2016).
41 See Essed, Understanding Everyday Racism.
42 FRA, Annual Report 2008 (Vienna: FRA 2008), 9 (emphasis added).
43 Silvia Rodríguez Maeso and Marta Araújo, ‘The politics of (anti-)racism: academic research and policy discourse in Europe’, in Wulf D. Hund and Alana Lentin (eds), Racism and Sociology, Racism Analysis, Yearbook 5 (Münster and Berlin: Lit-Verlag 2014), 207–37 (213–17).
44 EUMC, Migrants’ Experiences of Racism and Xenophobia in 12 EU Member States, 127 (emphasis added).
45 FRA, EU-MIDIS European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey: Main Results Report (Vienna: FRA 2009), 7 (emphasis added), available on the FRA website at http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/664-eumidis_mainreport_conference-edition_en_.pdf (viewed 5 December 20160.
46 FRA, ‘European Union Minority and Discrimination Survey (EU-MIDIS)’, Memo, 22 April 2009, 5, available on the FRA website at http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/410-EU-MIDIS_memo_en.pdf (viewed 17 November 2016).
47 FRA, EU-MIDIS at a Glance, 4 (emphasis added).
48 We draw on the notion of institutional racism proposed in Carmichael and Hamilton, Black Power, which points to the need to overcome the ideas of intentionality and prejudice, and focus on the structures, processes and routine practices embedded in western liberal democracies.
49 See Araújo, ‘Challenging narratives on diversity and immigration in Portugal’.
50 Alto Comissariado para a Imigração e Diálogo Intercultural (ACIDI), National Roma Communities Integration Strategy (2013–2020) (Lisbon: ACIDI 2013), available on the European Commission website at http://ec.europa.eu/justice/discrimination/files/roma_portugal_strategy_en.pdf (viewed 18 November 2016). See also Marta Araújo, ‘A very “prudent integration”: white flight, school segregation and the depoliticization of (anti)racism’, Race, Ethnicity and Education, vol. 19, no. 2, 2016, 300–23.
51 EUMC, Racism and Xenophobia in the EU Member States, 30.
52 Ibid., 14; see also FRA, Report on Racism and Xenophobia in the Member States of the EU (Vienna: FRA 2007), 106, available on the FRA website at http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/11-ar07p2_en.pdf (viewed 5 December 2016); and FRA, Annual Report 2008.
53 EUMC, Racism and Xenophobia in the EU Member States, 30.
54 CoE, ‘Recommendation CM/Rec(2009)4 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the education of Roma and Travellers in Europe’, adopted 17 June 2009, available on the CoE website at https://search.coe.int/cm/Pages/result_details.aspx?ObjectID=09000016805b0a1c (viewed 5 December 2016).
55 Ibid. See also ECRI, General Policy Recommendation No. 10: On Combating Racism and Racial Discrimination in and through School Education, CRI(2007)6, adopted 15 December 2006 (Strasbourg: ECRI 2007), 4, available on the CoE website at www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/activities/GPR/EN/Recommendation_N10/eng-recommendation%20nr%2010.pdf (viewed 5 December 2016).
56 ECRI, Recommendation No. 13 on Combating Anti-Gypsyism and Discrimination against Roma, CRI(2011)37, adopted 24 June 2011 (Strasbourg: ECRI 2011), 5, available on the CoE website at https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/activities/GPR/EN/Recommendation_N13/e-RPG%2013%20-%20A4.pdf (viewed 5 December 2016).
57 EUMC, Racism and Xenophobia in the EU Member States, 30.
58 Such as parental ‘avoidance strategies’ to prevent their children attending schools in their catchment area. See FRA, Fundamental Rights: Challenges and Achievements in 2011, Annual Report (Vienna: FRA 2012), 57, available on the FRA website at http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/2211-FRA-2012_Annual-Report-2011_EN.pdf (viewed 5 December 2016); and Araújo, ‘A very “prudent integration”’.
59 The term white flight was popularized in debates on the desegregation of public schools in the United States in the 1970s to describe the significant number of white families moving to the suburbs to avoid integrated schooling.
60 EUMC, The Annual Report on the Situation regarding Racism and Xenophobia in the Member States of the EU, Annual Report 2005 (Vienna: EUMC 2006), 75, 78, available on the FRA website at http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/10-ar06p2_en.pdf (viewed 5 December 2016).
61 ECRI, First Report on Portugal, CRI98(50) (Strasbourg: Council of Europe 1998), 9, 7–8, available on the UNHCR refword website at www.refworld.org/pdfid/51beeba74.pdf (viewed 5 December 2016).
62 ECRI, Third Report on Portugal, CRI(2007)4 (Strasbourg: Council of Europe 2007), 30 (emphasis added), available on the CoE website at www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/Country-by-country/Portugal/PRT-CbC-III-2007-4-ENG.pdf (viewed 5 December 2016).
63 ECRI, ECRI Report on Portugal (Fourth Monitoring Cycle), CRI(2013)20 (Strasbourg: Council of Europe 2013), 20, available on the CoE website at www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/Country-by-country/Portugal/PRT-CbC-IV-2013-020-ENG.pdf (viewed 5 December 2016).
64 Ibid., 22.
65 European Commission, ‘EU Framework’, available on the European Commission website at http://ec.europa.eu/justice/discrimination/roma/eu-framework/index_en.htm (viewed 6 December 2016).
66 See, for example, ECRI, Second Report on Portugal, CRI(2002)33 (Strasbourg: Council of Europe 2002), 21–2, available on the CoE website at www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/Country-by-country/Portugal/PRT-CbC-II-2002-033-EN.pdf (viewed 5 December 2016); ECRI, Third Report on Portugal, 23.
67 See Essed, Understanding Everyday Racism, 43; Hesse, ‘Discourse on institutional racism, the genealogy of a concept’, 144.
68 ECRI, Third Report on Portugal, 21 (emphasis added).
69 For the PII, covering the period 2007–9, see ‘Resolução do Conselho de Ministros No. 63-A/2007’, 2 May 2007, Diário da República, 1st Series, No. 85, 3 May 2007, available online at www.sg.min-saude.pt/NR/rdonlyres/A110CE46-A607-4BD1-AB82-BE86B31314C3/18612/00020024.pdf; for the PII, covering the period 2010–13, see ‘Resolução do Conselho de Ministros No. 74/2010’, 12 August 2010, Diário da República, 1st Series, No. 182, 17 September 2010, available on the Diário da República Electrónica website at https://dre.pt/application/dir/pdf1sdip/2010/09/18200/0409704116.pdf (both viewed 21 November 2016).
70 ‘Resolução do Conselho de Ministros No. 63-A/2007’, 2964-(2). Translations from the Portuguese, unless otherwise stated, are by the authors.
71 ‘Resolução do Conselho de Ministros No. 74/2010’, 4099.
72 Ibid., 4097.
73 ‘Resolução do Conselho de Ministros No. 63-A/2007’, 2964-(12); see also ‘Resolução do Conselho de Ministros No. 74/2010’, 4103.
74 ‘Resolução do Conselho de Ministros No. 74/2010’, 4103.
75 Among the fifteen National Focal Points of the European RAcism and XEnophobia Network, one for each member state, is the Centro de Investigação em Ciencias Sociais e Humanas (Númena).
76 European Network against Racism (ENAR), Rapport alternatif d’ENAR 2006: Racisme au Portugal (Brussels: Réseau Européen contre le racisme 2007), 25, available online at http://cms.horus.be/files/99935/MediaArchive/pdf/Portugal_2006.pdf (viewed 5 December 2016); ECRI, Third Report on Portugal, 13–14; FRA, Annual Report 2008, 23; Númena, O Racismo y Xenofobia en Portugal (2001–2007) (Oeiras: Númena 2008), 15.
77 In April 2013 the government presented a proposal to amend anti-discrimination legislation. However, to date, the proposal is ‘on hold’ and has not yet been discussed by the National Assembly. Neither was the proposal discussed by the members of the CICDR (according to the authors’ personal communication with a commission member in December 2014). Regarding the proposal, see Joana Gorjão Henriques, ‘Governo quer duplicar tecto máximo de multas por discriminação racial’, Público, 9 April 2013, available on the Público website at www.publico.pt/portugal/jornal/governo-quer-duplicar-tecto-maximo-de-multas-por-discriminacao-racial-26350503 (viewed 23 November 2016).
78 Andreia Sanches, ‘Pedro Lomba: “Os novos portugueses, descendentes de comunidades de imigrantes, precisam de uma nova atenção”’, Público (online), 28 August 2014, available at www.publico.pt/n1667796 (viewed 20 November 2016). It should also be noted that the PII established a commitment: ‘To collect and work with racial discrimination data, disaggregated by sex, gathered under administrative offence procedures for discrimination in general, in the sphere of employment’ (‘Resolução do Conselho de Ministros No. 74/2010’, 4103). This is related to the transposing of parts of the European Race Equality Directive (2000/43/EC) and the Employment Equality Directive (2000/78/EC) into the Employment Law (that is, the 2009 amendment, Ley 7/2009 of 12 February). The CICDR does not conduct enquiries into complaints about employment discrimination, which must be addressed to the Autoridade para as Condições do Trabalho (ACT, Working Conditions Authority). According to a public employee of the ACT, interviewed in March 2011, the number of racial discrimination complaints is very low, as is the number of administrative offence procedures and penalties. In the opinion of the interviewee, this meant that racial discrimination was not an issue in Portugal. To date there are no public records available on the number of relevant reports or administrative procedures.
79 For instance, regarding racism in sports or racial stereotyping in the mass media. Ways that could be used to determine the success of these measures are limited to the organization of events (such as seminars) or campaigns (such as the number of leaflets and brochures distributed, the number of schools participating in activities organized around these topics, or the ‘number of studies produced’); and the amount of relevant documentation produced by international organizations that the Gabinete para os Meios de Comunicação Social (Office for Media) has sent to the media. See ‘Resolução do Conselho de Ministros No. 63-A/2007’, 2964-(19), 2964(21).
80 ‘Resolução do Conselho de Ministros No. 74/2010’, 4099 (measure 13), 4100 (measure 23), 4104 (measure 67), 4109.
81 Ibid., 4105–6.
82 Ibid., 4104.
83 ‘Resolução do Conselho de Ministros No. 4/2001’, 9 January 2001, Diário da República, 1st Series-B, 9 January 2001, 69, available on the Diário da República Electrónica website at https://dre.pt/application/file/238954 (viewed 21 November 2016).
84 Projects are proposed and coordinated by consortia of at least four institutions (before 2012 the minimum number required was three).
85 Aged 6–24.
86 ‘Resolução do Conselho de Ministros No. 68/2012’, Diário da República, 1st Series, No. 154, 9 August 2012, 4279, available on the Diário da República Electrónica website at https://dre.pt/application/file/175252 (viewed 21 November 2016). This is the definition commonly used in the programme's webpage and its periodical publication Revista Escolhas.
87 ‘Gabinete do Secretário de Estado Adjunto do Ministro Adjunto e dos Assuntos Parlamentares: Despacho normativo No. 17/2012’, Diário da República, 2nd Series, No. 158, 16 August 2012, 29007, available on the Diário da República Electrónica website at https://dre.pt/application/dir/pdf2sdip/2012/08/158000000/2900629014.pdf (viewed 21 November 2016).
88 Ana de Saint-Maurice (ed.), Avaliação Externa do Programa Escolhas 2010–2012: Relatório Final (Lisbon: CET/ISCTE 2013), 80, available on the Programa Escolhas website at www.programaescolhas.pt/_cf/356618 (viewed 21 November 2016).
89 See the two last regulatory directives for the programme, published in 2009 and 2012: ‘Gabinete do Ministro da Presidência. Despacho normativo No. 27/2009’, Diário da República, 2nd Series, No. 151, 6 August 2009, available on the Diário da República Electrónica website at https://dre.pt/application/dir/pdf2sdip/2009/08/151000000/3143731444.pdf (viewed 21 November 2016); ‘Gabinete do Secretário de Estado Adjunto do Ministro Adjunto e dos Assuntos Parlamentares: Despacho normativo No. 17/2012’.
90 ‘Gabinete do Ministro da Presidência. Despacho normativo No. 27/2009’, 31437.
91 ‘Gabinete do Secretário de Estado Adjunto do Ministro Adjunto e dos Assuntos Parlamentares: Despacho normativo No. 17/2012’, 29006.
92 Saint-Maurice (ed.), Avaliação Externa do Programa Escolhas 2010–2012, 69.
93 Racism was, for the first time, explicitly included as one of the programme's strategic areas (‘Community Dynamization and Citizenship’) in the last official directive for the 2013–15 period: ‘Gabinete do Secretário de Estado Adjunto do Ministro Adjunto e dos Assuntos Parlamentares: Despacho normativo No. 17/2012’, 29006.
94 Respondents had to answer yes or no to the following statement: ‘My neighbourhood has racism problems’; 15 per cent of Roma respondents and 4.1 per cent of descendants of immigrants responded yes (Saint-Maurice (ed.), Avaliação Externa do Programa Escolhas 2010–2012, 93–7.
95 Ibid., 98.
96 Araújo, ‘Challenging narratives on diversity and immigration in Portugal’.
97 ‘Presidência do Conselho de Ministros. Decreto-Lei No. 251/2002’, Diário da República, 1st Series-A, No. 270, 22 November 2002, 7328, available on the Diário da República Electrónica website at https://dre.pt/application/file/448804 (viewed 21 November 2016).
98 For further details, see Maeso and Araújo, ‘The politics of (anti-)racism’; Araújo, ‘A very “prudent integration”’; and Silvia Rodríguez Maeso, ‘“Civilising” the Roma?: the depoliticisation of (anti-)racism within the politics of integration’, Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power, vol. 22, no. 1, 2015, 53–70.
99 Representative of a public body responsible for intercultural dialogue interviewed by the authors, February 2010.
100 This implicitly racial term is used as a synonym for ‘white Portuguese’, denoting a national ancestry that is ethnically homogeneous. The term was first popularized by Luís Vaz de Camões in his epic poem ‘Os Lusíadas’ (published 1572).
101 Regional coordinator of the Programa Escolhas, interviewed by the authors, December 2010.
102 Rosário Farmhouse, ‘O preconceito está no olhar’, Revista ACIDI B-i, No. 79, 2010, 2.
103 FRA, Annual Report 2008, 72–4; FRA, Annual Report 2009 (Vienna: FRA 2009), 12; FRA, Annual Report 2010 (Vienna: FRA), 67.
104 FRA, Annual Report 2009, 52.
105 FRA, ‘Data collection and research activities on racism and xenophobia in the EUMC (1998–2006)’, 101. Failure to bring about change was particularly visible in the case of D.H. and Others v. the Czech Republic, brought before the European Court of Human Rights (see FRA, Annual Report 2008, 16). A report published two years later noted the persistence of segregation in the Czech Republic (see FRA, Annual Report 2010, 66–7).
106 David Gillborn and Caroline Gipps, Recent Research on the Achievements of Ethnic Minority Pupils (London: HMSO 1996).
107 Central region of Portugal, with a population of 40,477 according to the latest census (2011).
108 Calado, quoted in Andreia Sanches, ‘Pode o combate ao insucesso escolar justificar a separação de alunos por etnia?’, Público (online), 25 September 2014, available on the Público website at www.publico.pt/n1670785 (viewed 23 November 2016).
109 News TSF, ‘Tomar: Turma constituída apenas por ciganos mantém-se’, 23 October 2014, available on the TSF website at www.tsf.pt/PaginaInicial/Interior.aspx?content_id=4196772 (viewed 23 November 2016).
110 Calado, quoted in Andreia Sanches, ‘Turma de ciganos continua a dividir opiniões: Mas projecto é para acabar’, Público (online), 2 February 2015, available on the Público website at www.publico.pt/n1684693 (viewed 23 November 2016).
111 Ribeiro, quoted in ‘É prematuro anunciar extinção de turma de crianças ciganas em escola de Tomar’, O Mirante, 4 February 2015, available on the O Mirante website at http://semanal.omirante.pt/index.asp?idEdicao=690&id=106772&idSeccao=12319&Action=noticia#.VOxmLCy3ER8 (viewed 6 December 2016).
112 Araújo, ‘A very “prudent integration”’.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Silvia Rodríguez Maeso
Silvia Rodríguez Maeso is Principal Researcher at the Centre for Social Studies at the University of Coimbra. Her recent publications include The Contours of Eurocentrism: Race, History, and Political Texts (Lexington Books 2015), co-authored with Marta Araújo. Her research and teaching interests are focused on critical race theories, the politics of anti-racism and the critique of Eurocentrism. Email: [email protected]
Marta Araújo
Marta Araújo is Principal Researcher at the Centre for Social Studies at the University of Coimbra, where she also lectures at doctoral level. Her research interests centre on the (re)production and challenging of racism and Eurocentrism, with particular interest in education. Her recent publications include ‘A very “prudent integration”: white flight, school segregation and the depoliticization of (anti-)racism’ (Race, Ethnicity and Education, 2016) and (with Silvia Rodríguez Maeso) The Contours of Eurocentrism: Race, History, and Political Texts (Lexington Books 2015). Email: [email protected]