Managing compulsory school experiences and educational theory as a basis for student teachers’ reflections

ABSTRACT

This article explores the significance of educational theory in student teachers’ reflections on former compulsory school experiences. The student teachers participating in this study were given a two-part assignment: (1) to create a digital pictorial narrative about one of their former teachers, (2) to write an academic text based on their narratives. We ask what kind of shifts can be observed in student teachers’ reflections when they reflect on their prior experiences from compulsory school alone as opposed to reflecting on their prior experiences in light of educational theory. The student teachers’ language in the two texts was significantly different, and we found it valuable to use Vygotsky's theory of language and thinking in the analysis. The text highlights two findings: when utilising educational theory, the student teachers’ focus shifted (1) from the teacher’s traits to the teacher’s actions and (2) from the pupil’s perspective to the teacher’s perspective.

KEYWORDS:

• educational theory
• experience-based knowledge
• scientific concepts
• spontaneous concepts
• student teachers’ reflections
• teacher education

Introduction

Teacher education has faced challenges related to practice relevance; specifically, it has been heavily criticised for being too theoretical and lacking a profession-oriented approach (Afdal, 2017; Jenset et al., 2019). According to Smeby (2010), practice relevance concerns how students learn to identify meaningful connections between theoretical knowledge and the knowledge they acquire in their fields of practice. Student teachers (ST) knowledge of the teaching profession begins within their earliest school knowledge, and during their time as compulsory school pupils, they acquire practice-relevant knowledge (Ruohotie-Lyhty & Kaikkonen, 2009). These experiences influence existing beliefs (Uitto & Syrjälä, 2008), and “occupy STs’ minds” (Heikkilä et al., 2012, p. 224). Therefore, STs should have the opportunity to reflect on their memories during their teacher education (Heikkilä et al., 2012; Uitto & Syrjälä, 2008).

According to McGarr and Gavaldon (2019), STs’ memories from school are often focused on their former teacher through the pupils’ lenses, and even if they have studied educational theory, they do not try to take their former teachers’ perspective. In this study, we are concerned with the potential significance of educational theory in STs’ reflections on their memories of their former teachers.

Previous research shows that STs’ former teachers serve as important role models (Körkkö et al., 2016), and has significance for the STs’ teacher identity (McGarr & Gavaldon, 2019). As a result of the many years spent as compulsory school pupils, STs form ideas about what kinds of teachers they would like to become (cf., Körkkö et al., 2016). Their direct observations of their teachers and their teachers’ actions “inform their future selves as teachers” (Miller & Shifflet, 2016, p. 26). Miller and Shifflet (2016) argued that STs can utilise memories of their former teachers in their reflections on their professional practice. However, McGarr and Gavaldon (2019) argued that the STs have to be scaffolded by the educators to move from an idealistic to a professional view of their former teacher.

Using the topic “classroom management”, the STs in this study created a digital pictorial narrative related to one of their teachers. After studying classroom management, they wrote an academic text based on their pictorial narratives and educational theory related to classroom management. The use of everyday language in the pictorial narratives and the academic language in the texts was significantly different. This led us to the following question: What kind of shifts in student teachers’ reflections can be observed when they reflect on their prior experiences from compulsory school alone as opposed to reflecting on their prior experiences in light of educational theory?

The “shift” refers to changes observed when the STs first reflected on experiences with a former teacher without relating their reflections to theory, and further reflected on the same experiences in light of educational theory acquired through lectures and self-study. Different dimensions of the concept of reflection are emphasised in educational research. In this article, reflection is understood as the act of assessing a topic from multiple perspectives without overlooking any (Dewey, 1997).

Previous research on reflection in teacher education

To achieve increased abstraction, prospective teachers need to encounter experiences that encourage reflection (Körkkö, 2021). Studies in the field of teacher education have examined the application of different methods in helping STs reflect on their practice (e.g., Afdal & Nerland, 2014; Brevik et al., 2014; Chye et al., 2019; Jenset et al., 2019; Körkkö, 2021; Körkkö et al., 2016; Solstad, 2013; Tang et al., 2019). These reflections are linked to a systematic activity (written or oral) that develops STs’ awareness of their experiences, such as the creation of portfolios (Chye et al., 2019; Körkkö et al., 2016) or videos (Körkkö, 2021). In the following paragraphs, we briefly present some studies that have highlighted the importance of linking theory and practice in teacher education.

Brevik et al. (2014) sought to determine how reasoning and learning among teachers and STs were affected by their use of educational theory. Their findings showed that the use of educational concepts in conversations with colleagues/fellow STs contributed to the teachers’/STs’ reflections on different action alternatives. Afdal and Nerland (2014) interviewed Finnish and Norwegian novice teachers. They found that the Finnish teachers (post-graduation) used educational concepts when reflecting on possible solutions to challenges in the class, while the Norwegian undergraduate teachers mainly used everyday concepts in their reflections. Afdal and Nerland (2014) and Brevik et al. (2014) both claimed that teacher education should contribute to enabling future teachers to use educational theory to solve challenges in schools.

In a so-called “theory-first university” in Hong Kong, Tang et al. (2019) analysed how STs utilised theory in their internships. By using surveys and follow-up interviews after the internship periods, the researchers determined how engaged the STs were in making theory–practice connections. The findings revealed that the STs utilised theoretical knowledge as a tool for reflection and that theory was applied to solve challenging practical situations in the classroom.

Körkkö (2021) argued that a ST supervisor’s role is to link educational theory and practice. She investigated how STs could enhance their reflections during their internships by using video recordings of classroom practices. While under supervision, they saw the videos and reflected on their experiences. Körkkö (2021) found that even though video recordings were used under supervision, this did not necessarily increase the students’ ability to link classroom situations and educational theory. She claimed that an important premise is that supervisors must see the connection between theory and practice when they ask questions and make comments about the content of the video.

Solstad (2013) examined how STs experienced supervision during their internship period and found that some supervisors did not utilise theory in their supervision. Several STs said that they would like their supervisors to provide a greater focus on educational theory. According to Solstad (2013), supervisors providing STs with theoretical justifications for in-class actions could challenge STs’ current thinking and encourage them to consider alternatives to their teaching approach.

STs may also be scaffolded by teacher educators when reflecting on their internship experiences. In a comparative study of the USA, Norway, and Finland, Jenset et al. (2019) examined how conversations about internship practice experiences were realised on campus. They found that most of the talks were superficial and simplified, some topics were briefly discussed and only a few STs, scaffolded by the teacher educator, made generalisations, and connected theory to practice. While Jenset et al. reported that they understand the need for different categories of talk, they highlighted the importance of educational theory when teachers reflect on their own experiences.

In this article, we are concerned with the significance of educational theory in STs reflections. The studies above, have examined the importance of STs applying theory in their reflections on their internship experiences. As mentioned in the introduction, previous studies have also investigated reflections on memories of previous school experiences. This study contributes to this field of research by highlighting how Vygotsky’s (1934/2012/1934) theory of spontaneous and scientific concepts may contribute to understanding how STs draw on their experiences as pupils when reflecting on a former teacher.

In the following section, we elaborate on our analytical framework; Vygotsky’s (1934/2012) theory of spontaneous and scientific concepts.

Spontaneous and scientific concepts

Vygotsky (1934/2012, p. 101) claimed that linguistic thinking is determined by a historical–cultural process expressed through “thought and language” and involving the use of various tools, including oral speech and written language. Vygotsky (1934/2012) also suggested that concepts control our intellectual operations and that we perceive reality through our acquired concepts. Peoples’ motivations, which are expressed through their needs, interests, and emotions, produce new thoughts, which in turn form new concepts. The more concepts we have for understanding a person (in this case, a former teacher) or a situation (in this case, the former teacher’s actions), the greater our understanding of the person or situation will be. Vygotsky (1934/2012) argued that analysis of reality occurs before analysis of a concept itself. That is, it is easier to analyse reality than to think of concepts detached from a context. Therefore, the social environment is important for thinking.

Vygotsky (1934/2012) was concerned with two types of concepts: spontaneous and scientific. Spontaneous concepts are learned through everyday events, while scientific concepts are learned in school and through higher education. According to Vygotsky (1934/2012), development begins when a concept is learned, and systematic learning contributes to an increased understanding of reality. Spontaneous concepts start as concrete experiences and grow into more abstract theories, while the systematic application of scientific concepts gradually leads to them becoming part of everyday thought (Daniels, 2008). The transformation of a concept from scientific to spontaneous is a cumbersome process, much like the transformation from concrete to abstract (Vygotsky, 1934/2012). In our context, this may indicate that STs experience challenges when trying to learn how to use scientific concepts to understand teaching practice, as is the case when learning educational theory.

Another key concept in Vygotsky’s theory (1934/2012) is reflective consciousness. Spontaneous concepts are unconscious because attention is only directed towards the concrete. A concept becomes conscious when it is part of systematic thinking, and according to Vygotsky (1934/2012), systematic thinking is developed from the use of scientific concepts. When STs acquire educational theory to understand a teacher’s actions, they will attain reflective awareness “through the portals of scientific concepts” (Vygotsky, 1934/2012, p. 181). Because spontaneous and scientific concepts are interdependent, acquired scientific concepts are combined with reflective consciousness and will contribute to greater awareness being given to spontaneous concepts.

Although Vygotsky focused on concepts, he emphasised that thinking does not express itself in words, but that thinking is realised through words: “Thought must first pass through meanings and only then through words” (Vygotsky, 1934/2012, p. 267). Vygotsky also distinguished between oral and written language. While oral speech is spontaneous and non-conscious, written speech is abstract and conscious. In this article, both oral speech (the digital pictorial narrative) and written text (the academic text) are the subjects of analysis.

Method

In this study, we investigate what kind of shifts can be observed in student teachers’ reflections when they reflect on their prior experiences from compulsory school alone as opposed to reflecting on their prior experiences in light of educational theory. The study was conducted in Norway, where teacher education comprises a five-year master’s degree that includes 60 European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) units of pedagogy (Ministry of Education, 2016). The universities develop their models based on a common binding framework plan, and at our institution, STs are given two school subject courses (subjects to teach in school) in their first year of study, while pedagogy commences in their second year of study. The empirical data in this study was collected via a two-part assignment handed out to the STs when they started their first topic in pedagogy, classroom management. The assignment was done as self-study, and the STs were not guided by the educators during this work. The assignment consisted of two parts:

Part 1: As an introduction to the topic of classroom management, the STs were required to create a digital pictorial narrative of one of their former teachers. The pictorial narrative consisted of five to seven pictures (drawn by themselves or located on the internet) and a recorded oral text approximately 3 minutes in duration.

Part 2: After engaging in lectures and self-study related to classroom management, the STs were asked to write an academic text in which they reflect on their pictorial narratives using educational theory.

The study is characterised by an intervention design inspired by Midgley (2000) and Kratochwill and Levin (2010). The assignment initiated a process intended to contribute to a change in the STs’ descriptions of and reflections on their former teachers and their former teachers’ actions (cf., Midgley, 2000). Intervention studies also contribute to the development of new knowledge (Kratochwill & Levin, 2010), and this study can provide new knowledge about how educational theory contributes to altered abstraction related to compulsory school experiences.

In the following text, “the assignment” refers to both the pictorial narratives and the academic texts. When analysing the pictorial narratives, we focused on the recorded oral texts, not the pictures. In total, 52 STs completed the assignment, and 39 signed a written consent to use their assignments for research.

When reading the narratives and the written texts inductively, we became aware of a significant difference in the use of language in the STs’ pictorial narratives and academic texts. In the summative analysis (using ATLAS.ti), we first marked the descriptive words used by the STs in both parts of the assignment, such as “kind” and “inclusive”. The summative analyses brought our attention towards a distinction between everyday language and academic language. Considering that a pictorial narrative is a recorded oral text (transcribed), we find it natural that there was mostly everyday language in this part of the assignment. One of the criteria of the academic text was to employ educational theory, however, we also find everyday language in this part of the assignment. To get a more nuanced understanding of the value of educational theory in STs’ reflections on former school experiences, we employed Vygotsky’s (1934/2012) theory of spontaneous and scientific concepts as an analytical framework for the second part of the analyses. Examples of spontaneous and scientific concepts in the two parts of the assignment are shown in Table 1. As such, Vygotsky’s theory (1934/2012) formed the basis of a theory-driven content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).

Table 1. Examples of spontaneous and scientific concepts in the pictorial narratives and the academic texts.

	Spontaneous concepts	Scientific concepts
Pictorial narratives	gentle, kind caring committed	inclusive teacher adapted teaching intrinsic motivation
Academic text	saw everyone use of humour teaching that suited all pupils	democratic leadership style strategic classroom management authoritative teacher

All the pictorial narratives and the academic texts were first analysed independently and then in relation to each other. Finally, a comparative analysis of the two parts of the assignment was conducted for all STs. All parts of the analysis were first conducted individually by both researchers, and then in collaboration. We identified two categories: “the teacher’s personality” and “the teacher’s actions”. These categories form the basis for the subsections presented in the next section of this article.

All names are anonymised. In the excerpts below, the STs’ references to theory are marked with XX, representing the author and year. Different references in the same excerpt are marked with XX and YY.

The student teachers’ descriptions of their former teachers

Through the analysis of the STs’ use of spontaneous and scientific concepts in the two parts of the assignment, we found significant differences between what they emphasised. This section is divided into two-subsections: (1) the STs’ descriptions of their former teachers’ personalities and (2) descriptions of their former teachers’ actions.

Former teachers’ personalities

Spontaneous concepts were mainly used when describing the former teachers, however the STs distinguished between external and internal traits.

External traits

In most of the pictorial narratives, the STs utilised spontaneous concepts to describe the former teachers’ external traits. Several STs linked these external descriptions to age by using concepts such as “very young” or “really old”. Several STs also described their teachers’ appearances by spontaneous concepts (e.g., “He had glasses and grey hair on top of his head”, “He was tall with a crooked nose and a big smile” and “She had red curls”). Some STs also commented on their teachers’ personalities by describing external features (e.g., “She always had a big smile and a laugh that filled the room” and “He always had a twinkle in his eye”). Several STs were concerned with their teachers’ interests, such as their favourite artists, and some commented on their teachers’ hobbies (e.g., “She was playing guitar” and “He was interested in football”).

In contrast to the pictorial narratives, none of the academic texts contained explicit descriptions of the former teachers’ external features. However, one of the STs’ descriptions may be interpreted as both an external and an internal feature: “She looked gentle, and she conveyed knowledge under conditions that were suitable for learning”. The spontaneous concept “gentle”, can be interpreted as a description of external features; however, in this context, we interpret this to mean that the ST was concerned with the teacher’s ability to teach.

Internal traits

Most of the STs commented on their teachers’ internal traits in their pictorial narratives, and some also did so in their academic texts. In the pictorial narratives, we found several spontaneous concepts related to internal traits (e.g., “kind”, “sympathetic”, “caring”, “committed” and “fair”). The teachers’ personalities were central in the pictorial narratives, and the STs used spontaneous concepts such as “a heart of gold”, “a little nerdy” and “gullible”. They also said, “He was old but still cool” and “He was like an old and loving grandfather”.

In the academic texts, the former teachers were mainly described by scientific concepts such as, “sensitive”, “competent” “an inspiration” and “possessing self-insight”. The teachers’ inner traits were also emphasised in connection with teaching (e.g., “She was always in a good mood” and “She took pleasure in teaching”).

Former teachers’ actions

In this section, we present four representative pictorial narratives and academic texts to illustrate the differences in how the STs described their teachers’ actions, by spontaneous and scientific concepts, in the two parts of the assignment.

The teacher as a class leader: a relational perspective

As already mentioned, many of the STs commented on their teachers’ internal traits, which were mainly linked to the relationship between the teacher and their pupil(s). Below, we demonstrate how two STs (ST-A and ST-B) described their relationships with their teachers in the two parts of the assignment.

ST-A’s pictorial narrative:

During the past 3 years, she and I have had several discussions. She told me she was very fond of me, not because I was the class clown but because I was very active in her otherwise passive class.

ST-A’s academic text:

The teacher said that the pupil had an important function because [the pupil] actively participated in her classes. This can be seen in relation to class management – and more precisely, situationally aware classroom management – because the teacher must undertake ethical considerations during developmental conversations.

In these excerpts, ST-A based her reflections on the developmental conversations between herself and her former teacher and used them to describe the relationship between pupil and teacher. While ST-A described a personal relationship (“she was very fond of me”) in the pictorial narrative, she created distance in the academic text by shifting focus to “the pupil”. While ST-A used spontaneous concepts (e.g., “very fond of me”) in the pictorial narrative, she mainly used scientific concepts (e.g., “developmental conversations”) in the academic text.

In the next example, another ST describes how her former teacher used biscuits as a reward for good behaviour.

ST-B’s pictorial narrative:

Andrew was a great teacher with a big heart. If we behaved well in class, we got biscuits. We knew where he stored the biscuit box, but we never dared to take it without permission. The biscuit box was placed on top of the tallest cupboard; he may have had an ulterior motive for this.

ST-B’s academic text:

XX defines classroom management as “an action which creates a learning environment that promotes and supports both academic and social development”. The teacher’s use of biscuits to reward behaviour is a good example of this. The teacher had given us strict instructions that we should not touch the biscuit box unless we deserved it. In this way, we gained moral awareness that taking a biscuit without permission would be seen as “illegal”. According to YY, classroom management has two clear goals. The first is to be able to create an environment for learning in which pupils can become engaged in academic activities. The second is to promote pupils’ social and moral development. The biscuit box is again an excellent example. Maybe our teacher used the biscuits to teach us about right and wrong.

In the pictorial narrative, ST-B utilised spontaneous concepts to describe the teacher’s relationship with his pupils. ST-B referred to herself and her classmates when she said, “we behaved well”. She also said that achieving silence in class was the purpose of the biscuit reward, and without elaborating, she also said that the teacher may have had “an ulterior motive”. In the academic text, ST-B applied scientific concepts when writing about teacher–pupil relationships in general. She referred to educational theory when she described how the teacher used biscuits to give the pupils “moral awareness”.

The teacher as a class leader: a didactic perspective

We have selected two STs’ (ST-C and ST-D) pictorial narratives and academic texts to exemplify how the STs used spontaneous and scientific concepts to describe their former teachers’ didactic competences. The first example can also be understood from a relational perspective, although in this article, we emphasise the teachers’ didactic competences.

ST-C’s pictorial narrative:

I clearly remember how Maria allowed me to take the science exam orally. This meant a lot to me because it was impossible for me to demonstrate my knowledge through written exams. Other pupils were also given the same opportunity to choose between having an oral or written exam. We really appreciated this opportunity.

ST-C’s academic text:

My teacher was interested in the individual’s learning situation, and she had expectations regarding our academic development (XX). She arranged for the pupils to experience academic mastery. … As instrumental support, the pupils received concrete advice, practical help, and guidance with their schoolwork (YY). The teacher provided instrumental support by arranging oral tests, which was crucial for my academic development.

In the pictorial narrative, ST-C utilised spontaneous concepts, like “allowed me to take”, when explaining how the teacher made it possible for her to take the exam orally. She also added that other pupils in the class were given this opportunity. In the academic text, ST-C alternated between referring to herself, the class, and pupils in general when she explained how the teacher facilitated pupils’ learning. The ST utilised scientific concepts, such as “instrumental support”, when generalising.

In the next example, the ST is concerned with how the teacher emphasised understanding mathematics.

ST-D’s pictorial narrative:

In my opinion, Peter was great at explaining science, especially maths. He used arithmetic narratives and a fictional character named Bobby. In maths, he also focused on understanding. He wanted us to understand what we were doing and why. He made maths a subject in which you did not have to learn a lot, but we had to understand what we were doing. When prioritising understanding, it was also easier to learn maths.

ST-D’s academic text:

However, Peter was a teacher who focused on understanding when it came to his subject, mathematics, [which is] something that XX recommends. According to YY, classroom management is, among other things, [a matter of] adapting teaching [methods] to pupils’ needs, which can lead to increased understanding. In the way the blackboard and arithmetic stories were used, Peter gave the pupils new perspectives on mathematics. He introduced us to a new teaching method, arithmetic stories, with [his use of] Bobby.

In the pictorial narrative, ST-D utilised spontaneous concepts when describing how her teacher emphasised the importance of understanding mathematics. However, in the academic text, she cited the syllabus to substantiate the importance of “understanding” and adapting “teaching [methods] to pupils” needs. While ST-D focused on the teacher’s classroom actions in the pictorial narrative, she used scientific concepts in the academic text and focused on teachers’ actions in general. In the following section, we discuss two main findings from the analyses.

Discussion

This study examines the potential role of educational theory in STs’ reflections on their compulsory school experiences. In this section, we highlight two main findings that show what kind of shifts can be observed in student teachers’ reflections when they reflect on their prior experiences from compulsory school alone as opposed to reflecting on their prior experiences in light of educational theory: (1) the STs’ focus shift from the former teachers’ traits to the teachers’ actions and (2) the STs’ perspective shift from pupil’s perspective to teacher’s perspective. These main findings are summarised in separate subsections.

From the teachers’ traits to the teachers’ actions

Even though the STs had studied didactics before they started working on their pictorial narratives, they only utilised a few scientific concepts when describing their former teachers in these narratives. They utilised spontaneous concepts and “simplified talk” (cf., Jenset et al., 2019) and were mainly concerned with their teachers’ personalities and appearances (cf., Vygotsky, 1934/2012). These traits are relatively static (Vygotsky, 1934/2012). This indicates that STs, without having acquired educational theory, believe that the teacher’s external and internal traits are important for classroom management. We argue that this may give an idealistic view of their former teacher (cf., McGarr & Gavaldon, 2019).

The academic text in our study required the STs to use their acquired theoretical knowledge in their reflections on their pictorial narratives (cf., Daniels, 2008). When the educators scaffolded the STs through lectures, their reflections shifted from an idealistic to a professional view of their former teacher (cf., McGarr & Gavaldon, 2019). Lectures and self-study focusing on classroom management contributed to a shift from spontaneous to scientific concepts, which in turn caused systematic learning (cf., Tang et al., 2019; Vygotsky, 1934/2012). The STs’ focus shifted from a concrete description of their former teachers in the pictorial narrative to a more abstract understanding of their teachers’ actions in the academic text (cf., Jenset et al., 2019; Vygotsky, 1934/2012). Through intellectual operations, in which scientific concepts function as tools, the STs described their teachers’ actions and classroom management behaviours (cf., Vygotsky, 1934/2012). Our analysis shows that the STs who utilised more scientific concepts had a greater opportunity to shift focus from assessing the teacher as a person to reflecting on the teacher’s actions and the educational consequences of these actions (cf., Afdal & Nerland, 2014; Brevik et al., 2014).

From pupil’s perspective to teacher’s perspective

In the pictorial narratives, the STs used oral language and spontaneous concepts to express personal descriptions of the relationship between themselves and their former teachers. The narratives dealt with how their former teachers contributed to the STs’ individual academic development. In addition, to use spontaneous concepts, the STs took a first-person perspective, which reinforces the impression that they related the teacher mainly to their own experiences and their relationship with them. Vygotsky (1934/2012) stated that concepts cannot be detached from a context, and as we understand it, the spontaneous concepts in the pictorial narratives function as a reinforcement of a personal relationship between the pupils (i.e., the STs when they were in compulsory school) and their teachers.

Another individual perspective in the pictorial narratives was that the STs, both implicit and explicit, claimed that they wanted to be like their former teacher (cf., Körkkö et al., 2016). However, they did not reflect on how they could achieve this. On the other hand, in the academic texts when utilising more scientific concepts, none of the STs mentioned that they regarded their former teacher as a role model.

In the pictorial narratives, we did not find explicit connections between how the STs utilised spontaneous concepts to describe their teachers’ actions and how they utilised spontaneous concepts to describe teachers’ actions in general (cf., Vygotsky, 1934/2012). However, reflective awareness occurred in the academic texts, where the STs reflected on their former teachers’ actions using educational theory and scientific concepts. This reflection, in turn, contributed to a shift in their focus, from the concrete (the relationship between the pupil and the teacher) to the more abstract (classroom management) (cf., Afdal & Nerland, 2014; Brevik et al., 2014; Körkkö, 2021; Solstad, 2013; Tang et al., 2019; Vygotsky, 1934/2012). The content was still linked to everyday actions, but the use of scientific concepts helped the STs to generalise (cf., Jenset et al., 2019; Vygotsky, 1934/2012). Through the lens of educational theory, the STs’ experiences were seen in connection with the challenges and opportunities faced by teachers in general (cf., Afdal & Nerland, 2014; Brevik et al., 2014; Jenset et al., 2019). Increased theoretical knowledge contributed to the STs’ increased abstraction and became a tool for understanding the complexities of classroom management (cf., Afdal & Nerland, 2014; Brevik et al., 2014; Jenset et al., 2019; Körkkö, 2021; Solstad, 2013; Vygotsky, 1934/2012). Educational theory and scientific concepts thus contributed to the STs’ ability to shift focus from the pupil’s perspective in the pictorial narrative to the teacher’s perspective in the academic text (cf., McGarr & Gavaldon, 2019; Vygotsky, 1934/2012).

Concluding comments

We believe that the STs’ memories of their schooling offer a “cultural-historical process” that activates their thinking (Vygotsky, 1934/2012, p. 95). According to Vygotsky (1934/2012), thinking by using concepts that are detached from reality is more difficult than linking the concepts to a person or a situation; therefore, the STs’ school experiences are important for their intellectual operations. These intellectual operations took place when the STs reflected on their former teachers and their teachers’ actions based on educational theory.

As mentioned in the introduction, previous studies found that STs achieved a higher level of reflection when their experience-based internship knowledge was linked to theory (Afdal & Nerland, 2014; Brevik et al., 2014; Körkkö et al., 2016; McGarr & Gavaldon, 2019; Solstad, 2013; Tang et al., 2019). This study contributes to the existing research by underlining the potential importance of STs employing educational theory when reflecting on memories of prior schooling.

Our findings show that scientific concepts contributed to a shift in the STs’ understanding of their former teachers (cf., Vygotsky, 1934/2012). Hence, STs’ reflections on a former teacher through the lens of educational theory can be understood as a tool for “going meta” (cf., Bruner, 1996, p. 88). For several years, the STs had been exposed to their teachers, and educational theory contributed to them gaining a meta-perspective on their teachers’ actions. Although the development of professionalism is in its infancy when a concept is learned (cf., Vygotsky, 1934/2012), we argue that when the STs utilised scientific concepts, their perspectives shifted from teachers’ traits to teachers’ actions, and from pupils’ perspective to teachers’ perspective.

The data in this study are limited to one cohort of STs in one institution; therefore, there is no basis for generalising the findings. Still, we believe that the findings in this article have implications for teacher education in that it highlights the value of actively using STs’ experiences as compulsory school pupils as a tool for reflection. The study further emphasises the importance of utilising educational theory in these reflections. We argue that an important value of this study is that STs conceptualise their experiences based on educational theory, which they acquire through teacher education. Hence, we suggest that STs carry out the same analyses on their own assignments, to acquire reflective consciousness as they become conscious of the interdependent relationship between spontaneous and scientific concepts (Vygotsky, 1934/2012).

Future research could include STs’ interviews and reflection notes after analysing their own assignment, to allow for an investigation of the STs’ perspective on the value of educational theory in teacher education.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the STs who made it possible for us to carry out this study by sharing their experiences and reflections through pictorial narratives and academic texts. There are no conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s ).