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ABSTRACT
To compete for attention in today's online environment, webtexts must appeal not only to human audiences, but also to the search engines that rank them via a results page, driving traffic their way (or not). This article investigates the rhetorical dynamics of this fundamental dimension of contemporary online discourse, viewing search engines as a pivotal nexus between scholarly conversations regarding algorithmic rhetoric and attention management. Specifically, it positions the algorithm as an audience, one webtexts invoke via subtextual signals meant to elude human notice. It is animated by Charles E. Morris's formulation of the fourth persona, drawing on his framework to delineate a technologically oriented persona 4.0. In doing so, this paper broadens rhetoric's long-standing repertoire of constructs pertaining to persona to include algorithmic address. It then takes web searches for “public speaking,” and the top-ranking page by the motivational speaker Brian Tracy, as a site through which to explore the dynamics of persona 4.0, thereby also highlighting some of the disciplinary stakes.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Jennifer Borda, Jim Farrell, Kevin Healey, Karrin Vasby Anderson, and the anonymous reviewers for their invaluable guidance during the writing process.
Notes
1 Barry Schwartz, “Google Admits It's Using Very Limited Personalization in Search Results,” Search Engine Land, September 17, 2018, https://searchengineland.com/google-admits-its-using-very-limited-personalization-in-search-results-305469.
2 For example, Google's verbatim tool eliminates personalized results and other forms of tailoring (such as corrected spelling). See Rob D. Young, “Google Introduces Verbatim Searching,” Search Engine Watch, November 18, 2011, https://searchenginewatch.com/sew/news/2126346/google-introduces-verbatim-searching.
3 Richard A. Lanham, The Economics of Attention: Style and Substance in the Age of Information (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 13, 17; see also, Michael H. Goldhaber, “The Attention Economy and the Net,” First Monday 2, nos. 4–7 (1997), https://www.firstmonday.org/article/view/519/440.
4 Lanham, Economics of Attention, xii–iii.
5 Todd Oakley, From Attention to Meaning: Explorations in Semiotics, Linguistics, and Rhetoric (New York: Peter Lang, 2009), 189–90.
6 For some work that explores these reconfigurations, see Damien Smith Pfister, Networked Media, Networked Rhetorics: Attention and Deliberation in the Early Blogosphere (University Park: Penn State University Press, 2014); Jiyeon Kang, “Call for Civil Inattention: ‘RaceFail ’09’ and Counterpublics on the Internet,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 105, no. 2 (2019): 133–55, https://doi.org/10.1080/00335630.2019.1595100; Teena A.M. Carnegie, “Interface as Exordium: The Rhetoric of Interactivity,” Computers and Composition 26, no. 3 (2009): 164–73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compcom.2009.05.005.
7 Pfister, Networked Media, Networked Rhetorics, 32.
8 Dave Davies, “Meet the 7 Most Popular Search Engines in the World,” Search Engine Journal, January 7, 2018, https://www.searchenginejournal.com/seo-101/meet-search-engines/#close.
9 “The Top 500 Sites on the Web,” Alexa, accessed November 16, 2020, https://www.alexa.com/topsites; “The Moz Top 500 Websites,” Moz, accessed November 16, 2020, https://moz.com/top500; see also Siva Vaidhyanathan, The Googlization of Everything: (And Why We Should Worry) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012).
10 Jon Ronson, So You’ve Been Publicly Shamed (New York: Riverhead, 2015), 265.
11 On the history of the search engine results page, see Clark Boyd, “A Visual History of Google SERPs: 1996 to 2017,” Search Engine Watch, March 29, 2017, https://searchenginewatch.com/2017/03/29/a-visual-history-of-google-serps-1996-to-2017/.
12 “Google Launches Self-Service Advertising Program,” Google News, October 23, 2000, http://googlepress.blogspot.com/2000/10/google-launches-self-service.html.
13 Eric Enge, Stephan Spencer, and Jessie C. Stricchiola, The Art of SEO: Mastering Search Engine Optimization, 3rd ed. (Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly, 2015), 18; see also Rand Fishkin, “How to Rank: The SEO Checklist,” Moz, December 29, 2017, https://moz.com/blog/rank-in-2018-seo-checklist; see also Barry Schwartz, “Now we Know: Here are Google's Top 3 Search Ranking Factors,” Search Engine Land, March 24, 2016, https://searchengineland.com/now-know-googles-top-three-search-ranking-factors-245882. Also of note are strategies that prioritize returns on local or international queries, though this paper will not address that dimension of SEO, focusing on more basic, general, bread-and-butter SEO.
14 Barbara Warnick, “Looking to the Future: Electronic Texts and the Deepening Interface,” Technical Communication Quarterly 14, no. 3 (2005): 332, https://doi.org/10.1207/s15427625tcq1403_11.
15 See, for example, Kevin Brock, Rhetorical Code Studies: Discovering Arguments in and Around Code (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2019); Casey Boyle and Nathaniel A. Rivers, “A Version of Access,” Technical Communication Quarterly 25, no. 1 (2016): 29–47, https://doi.org/10.1080/10572252.2016.1113702.
16 Ian Bogost, Persuasive Games: The Expressive Power of Video Games (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2007), 29. See also Annette Vee, Coding Literacy: How Programming is Changing Writing (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2017).
17 Nathan R. Johnson, “Information Infrastructure as Rhetoric: Tools for Analysis,” Poroi 8, no. 1 (2012): Article 10, https://doi.org/10.13008/2151-2957.1113. See also Nathan R. Johnson, Architects of Memory: Information and Rhetoric in a Networked Archival Age (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2020).
18 Casey Boyle, James J. Brown, Jr., and Steph Ceraso, “The Digital: Rhetoric Behind and Beyond the Screen,” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 48, no. 3 (2018): 252, https://doi.org/10.1080/02773945.2018.1454187. See also, John Durham Peters, The Marvelous Clouds: Toward a Philosophy of Elemental Media (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015); James J. Brown, Jr., Ethical Programs: Hospitality and the Rhetorics of Software (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2015).
19 Casey Boyle, Rhetoric as a Posthuman Practice (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2018).
20 Anne Teresa Demo, “Hacking Agency: Apps, Autism, and Neurodiversity,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 103, no. 3 (2017): 277–300, https://doi.org/10.1080/00335630.2017.1321135; Carolyn R. Miller, “What Can Automation Tell Us About Agency?” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 37, no. 2 (2007): 137–57, https://doi.org/10.1080/02773940601021197; Brian J. McNely and Nathaniel A. Rivers, “All of the Things: Engaging Complex Assemblages in Communication Design,” in Proceedings of the 32nd ACM International Conference on the Design of Communication, CD-ROM, SIGDOC ’14 (New York: ACM, 2014), 7:1–7:10.
21 See Estee Beck, “A Theory of Persuasive Computer Algorithms for Rhetorical Code Studies,” Enculturation 23 (November 2016), http://enculturation.net/a-theory-of-persuasive-computer-algorithms, though she is wary of overemphasizing algorithmic agency and thereby anthropomorphizing; see also Kevin Brock and Dawn Shepherd, “Understanding How Algorithms Work Persuasively Through the Procedural Enthymeme,” Computers and Composition 42 (2016): 17–27, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compcom.2016.08.007; Miles C. Coleman, “Machinic Rhetorics and the Influential Movements of Robots,” Review of Communication 18, no. 4 (2018): 336–51, https://doi.org/10.1080/15358593.2018.1517417.
22 Beck, “A Theory of Persuasive Computer Algorithms”; see also Ted Striphas, “Algorithmic Culture,” European Journal of Cultural Studies 18, no. 4–5 (2015): 395–412.
23 Safiya Umoja Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York: NYU Press, 2018), 5; Eli Pariser, The Filter Bubble: How the New Personalized Web is Changing What We Read and How We Think (New York: Penguin, 2012); see also Vaidhyanathan, The Googlization of Everything. There is a substantial literature on the politics of search engines, such as this pioneering piece by Lucas D. Introna and Helen Nissenbaum, “Shaping the Web: Why the Politics of Search Engines Matters,” Information Society 16, no. 3 (2000), https://doi.org/10.1080/01972240050133634.
24 See John R. Gallagher, “Writing for Algorithmic Audiences,” Computers and Composition 45 (2017): 25–35, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compcom.2017.06.002; Angela Glotfelter, “Algorithmic Circulation: How Content Creators Navigate the Effects of Algorithms on Their Work,” Computers and Composition 54 (2019): 1–14, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compcom.2019.102521.
25 Richard A. Lanham, The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology, and the Arts (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 43.
26 Casey Boyle, “Writing and Rhetoric and/as Posthuman Practice,” College English 78, no. 6 (2016): 532–54, https://library.ncte.org/journals/CE/issues/v78-6/28626.
27 J.A. Cuddon, “Sub-text,” in The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 4th ed. (London: Penguin, 1999), 877.
28 See Martin J. Medhurst, “Eisenhower's ‘Atoms for Peace’ Speech: A Case Study in the Strategic Use of Language,” Communication Monographs 54, no. 2 (1987): 204–20, https://doi.org/10.1080/03637758709390226.
29 See Ian Hanley López, Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 4.
30 Charles E. Morris III, “Pink Herring & The Fourth Persona: J. Edgar Hoover's Sex Crime Panic,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 88, no. 2 (2002): 228–44, https://doi.org/10.1080/00335630209384372.
31 Don J. Waisanen and Amy B. Becker developed the notion of circulating personae, which attends to how persona operates in contemporary media environments, “The Problem with Being Joe Biden: Political Comedy and Circulating Personae,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 32, no. 4 (2015): 256–71, https://doi.org/10.1080/15295036.2015.1057516. For another recent addition to the persona repertoire, see Robin E. Jensen, Erin F. Doss, Claudia I. Janssen, and Sherrema A. Bower, “Theorizing the Transcendent Persona: Amelia Earhart's Vision in The Fun of It,” Communication Theory 20, no. 1 (2010): 1–20, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2009.01353.x.
32 James Jasinski, “Persona,” in Sourcebook On Rhetoric: Key Concepts in Contemporary Rhetorical Studies (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2001), 429. See Wayne C. Booth, The Rhetoric of Fiction (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983).
33 Edwin Black, “The Second Persona,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 56, no. 2 (1970): 112, https://doi.org/10.1080/00335637009382992.
34 Philip Wander, “The Third Persona: An Ideological Turn in Rhetorical Theory,” Central States Speech Journal 35, no. 4 (1984): 209, https://doi.org/10.1080/10510978409368190.
35 Morris, “Pink Herring,” 229.
36 See Charles E. Morris III, “Passing by Proxy: Collusive and Convulsive Silence in the Trial of Leopold and Loeb,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 91, no. 3 (2005): 264–90, https://doi.org/10.1080/00335630500350350.
37 Morris, “Pink Herring,” 230.
38 Morris, “Pink Herring,” 240–1.
39 E.g., Hanley López, Dog Whistle Politics. See Jamie Moshin, “Hello Darkness: Antisemitism and Rhetorical Silence in the ‘Trump Era,’” Journal of Contemporary Rhetoric 8, no. 1/2 (2018): 26–43.
40 Karma Chávez's “textual stare” deserves note here given her contextualization of it via Morris's fourth persona, positioning it as another form of resistance to dominance. Via the stare, one scrutinizes the embodiments of those who generally experience the world via unmarked, taken-for-granted, implicitly validated, and therefore powerfully invisible bodies. See Karma R. Chávez, “The Body: An Abstract and Actual Rhetorical Concept,” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 48, no. 3 (2018): 242–50, https://doi.org/10.1080/02773945.2018.1454182.
41 As of 2020, the World Wide Web has over 1.5 billion sites, an ever-growing number you can track in real time via the Internet Live Stats site, “Total Number of Websites,” Internet Live Stats, accessed December 7, 2020, https://www.internetlivestats.com/total-number-of-websites/. See Taina Bucher, “Want to be on the Top? Algorithmic Power and the Threat of Invisibility on Facebook,” New Media and Society 14, no. 7 (2012): 1164–80, https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444812440159.
42 Harold Davis, Search Engine Optimization: Building Traffic and Making Money with SEO (Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media, 2006), 1.
43 It is important to note here that not all SEO takes the form of a wink. For example, some is entirely invisible to human audiences, written into underlying code.
44 Morris, “Pink Herring,” 241.
45 Morris, “Pink Herring,” 230.
46 On this point, see Celeste M. Condit, “Pathos in Criticism: Edwin Black's Communism-as-Cancer Metaphor,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 99, no. 1 (2013): 1–26, https://doi.org/10.1080/00335630.2012.749417.
47 Black, “The Second Persona,” 113. Philip Wander describes the second persona as affirming, in contrast to the third persona's negation (of an audience and way of being). See Wander, “The Third Persona,” 209.
48 For work that engages Morris's fourth persona via queer politics, see, for example, Casey Ryan Kelly, “Emasculating Trump: Incredulity, Homophobia, and the Spectacle of White Masculinity,” QED: A Journal in GLBTQ Worldmaking 5, no. 3 (2018): 1–27, https://doi.org/10.14321/qed.5.3.0001; Benny LeMaster, “Discontents of Being and Becoming Fabulous on RuPaul's Drag U: Queer Criticism in Neoliberal Times,” Women's Studies in Communication 38, no. 2 (2015): 167–86, https://doi.org/10.1080/07491409.2014.988776; Erin J. Rand, “An Inflammatory Fag and a Queer Form: Larry Kramer, Polemics, and Rhetorical Agency,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 94, no. 3 (2008): 297–319, https://doi.org/10.1080/00335630802210377.
49 See Herman Cohen, The History of Speech Communication: The Emergence of a Discipline, 1914–1945 (Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association, 1994).
50 Rhetoricians such as Jennifer Mercieca, Richard Cherwitz, and others have forayed into public discourse about public speaking, publishing pieces in mainstream news venues. See, for example, Jennifer Mercieca, “How Donald Trump Gets Away with Saying Things Other Candidates Can't,” Washington Post, March 9, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2016/03/09/how-donald-trump-gets-away-with-saying-things-other-candidates-cant/; Richard Cherwitz, “The Gulf of Oman— Repeating the Rhetorical Past?” San Antonio Express-News, June 19, 2019, https://www.mysanantonio.com/opinion/commentary/article/The-Gulf-of-Oman-repeating-the-rhetorical-14020386.php.
51 “27 Useful Tips to Overcome Your Fear of Public Speaking,” Brian Tracy International, accessed November 16, 2020, https://www.briantracy.com/blog/public-speaking/27-useful-tips-to-overcome-your-fear-of-public-speaking/.
52 As estimated by the SEMRush software suite, July 15, 2019, https://www.semrush.com.
53 Jim Yu, “Blogging and SEO: A Relationship It Pays to Nurture,” Search Engine Watch, May 12, 2015, https://searchenginewatch.com/sew/how-to/2407771/blogging-and-seo-a-relationship-it-pays-to-nurture.
54 “How Search Works,” Google Search, accessed November 16, 2020, http://www.google.com/search/howsearchworks/.
55 “Chapter 8: Toxins & Search Engine Spam Penalties,” Search Engine Land, accessed November 16, 2020, https://searchengineland.com/guide/seo/violations-search-engine-spam-penalties.
56 For discussions of the former, see Wayne C. Anderson, “‘Perpetual Affirmations, Unexplained’: The Rhetoric of Reiteration in Coleridge, Carlyle, and Emerson,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 71, no. 1 (1985): 37–51, https://doi.org/10.1080/00335638509383716; William D. Fusfield, “‘To Want to Prove it … is … Really Superfluous’: Friedrich Schlegel's Reiterative Repudiation of Demonstrative Rhetoric in the Athenäum Fragment #82,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 83, no. 2 (1987): 133–51, https://doi.org/10.1080/00335639709384177.
57 Claire Cain Miller, “Web Words That Lure the Readers,” The New York Times, February 10, 2011, https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/11/business/media/11search.html; see also “What is Article Spinning and Why is it ‘Black Hat’ SEO,” Post Modern Marketing, accessed November 16, 2020, https://www.postmm.com/seo/technical-seo/bad-seo-content-spinning.
58 That said, updates did not entirely banish the practice, see Nancy McCord, “Google Says It Hates Keyword Stuffing But Why Do Top Sites Still Use It,” McCord Web Services, August 29, 2013, http://www.mccordweb.com/weblogs/2013/08/29/google-says-it-hates-keyword-stuffing-but-why-do-top-sites-still-use-it/.
59 Jayson DeMers, “Is Keyword Density Still Important in SEO?” Forbes, accessed March 12, 2019, https://www.forbes.com/sites/jaysondemers/2017/09/13/is-keyword-density-still-important-in-seo/#45865b078ddb, page no longer active. See also Ryan Stewart, “Why I Stopped Selling SEO Services and You Should, Too,” Moz, October 7, 2015, https://moz.com/blog/why-i-stopped-selling-seo-services-and-you-should-too.
60 “URLs,” Moz, accessed November 16, 2020, https://moz.com/learn/seo/url.
61 Clark Boyd, “The Ultimate Guide for an SEO-Friendly URL Structure,” Search Engine Journal, December 23, 2019, https://www.searchenginejournal.com/seo-friendly-url-structure-2/202790/.
62 “URLs,” Moz.
63 “Title Tag,” Moz, accessed March 12, 2019, https://moz.com/learn/seo/title-tag.
64 Joshua Hardwick, “How to Craft the Perfect SEO Title Tag (Our 4-Step Process),” Ahrefs.com, May 28, 2020, https://ahrefs.com/blog/title-tag-seo/. This article also provides useful insight into how the dynamics around such factors change over time.
65 “Irrelevant keywords,” Google, accessed November 16, 2020, https://support.google.com/webmasters/answer/66358?hl=en.
66 Matt Cutts/Google Webmasters, “What is the Ideal Keyword Density of a Page,” Posted August 8, 2011, YouTube Video, 00:54–00:57, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rk4qgQdp2UA.
67 Its high-profile Hummingbird (2013) and Rankbrain (2015) updates were particularly instrumental in this move.
68 Stoney deGeyter, “Goodbye Keyword Optimization—Welcome to the Age of Topical Optimization,” Search Engine Land, December 15, 2015, https://searchengineland.com/goodbye-keyword-optimization-welcome-age-topical-optimization-237770. See also John Rampton, “SEO Keyword Ratio Guide: How to Not Kill Your SEO,” Forbes, January 28, 2017, https://www.forbes.com/sites/johnrampton/2017/01/28/seo-keyword-ratio-guide-how-to-not-kill-your-seo/#363ca6ca599a.
69 SEMRush software suite, https://www.semrush.com; see also nTopic, http://www.ntopic.org.
70 SEMRush software suite, accessed June 25, 2019, https://www.semrush.com.
71 “How Google Dishes out Content by Search Intent,” Moz, March 12, 2019, https://moz.com/blog/google-search-intent-content.
72 “Google Hummingbird,” Moz, accessed November 16, 2020, https://moz.com/learn/seo/google-hummingbird.
73 See also re:verb: a podcast about politics, culture, and language in action, https://www.reverbcast.com/about/.
74 Google Trends for May 2019. As a search term, “public address” presents some challenges; most of the top results for the phrase relate to public address systems.
75 Safiya Umoja Noble, Algorithms of Oppression.
76 For pertinent 2008 critiques of americanrhetoric.com's selections, see the following CRTNET posts: https://lists.psu.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0809&L=CRTNET&P=R5437&I=-3&d=No+Match%3BMatch%3BMatches; https://lists.psu.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0809&L=CRTNET&P=R6455&I=-3&d=No+Match%3BMatch%3BMatches.
77 “Blogging Past, Present and Future,” roundpeg, https://roundpeg.biz/2019/03/blogging-past-present-and-future/; for a wide-ranging account of blogging and attention, see Pfister, Networked Media, Networked Rhetorics.
78 Laurel Taylor, “What to do with Your Old Blog Posts,” Moz, November 26, 2018, https://moz.com/blog/what-to-do-with-old-blog-posts.
79 Bob Kehoe, “Debunking Myths About Writing and Blogging for SEO,” Leverage Marketing, accessed November 16, 2020, https://www.theleverageway.com/blog/business-blogging-seo-myths/.
80 Jim Yu, “Blogging and SEO.”
81 Joe Goers, “8 Simple Ways to Utilize a Blog to Improve SEO Results,” Search Engine Land, December 1, 2017, https://searchengineland.com/8-simple-ways-utilize-blog-improve-seo-results-287261.
82 “Your Guide to Building Wealth From Scratch,” Brian Tracy International, accessed July 15, 2019, https://www.briantracy.com/blog/financial-success/building-wealth/; “Why You Need to Stop Killing Time,” Brian Tracy International, accessed July 15, 2019, https://www.briantracy.com/blog/time-management/stop-killing-time/. Rankings as estimated by the SEMRush software suite, https://www.semrush.com.
83 E. Johanna Hartelius, The Rhetoric of Expertise (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2011).
84 Adrienne P. Lamberti, “Retracing the Footprints from Print to Digital: An Assessment of Textual Structure,” in Complex Worlds: Digital Culture, Rhetoric, and Professional Communication, ed. Adrienne P. Lamberti and Anne R. Richards (Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing Company, 2011), 45. Here, Lamberti is responding to work by David K. Farkas, “Explicit Structure in Print and On-Screen Documents,” Technical Communication Quarterly 14, no. 1 (2005): 9–30, https://doi.org/10.1207/s15427625tcq1401_3.
85 Lamberti, “Retracing the Footprints,” 46. See also, Douglas Eyman, “Digital Rhetoric: Theory,” in Digital Rhetoric: Theory, Method, Practice (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2015), 61–92; Lev Manovich, The Language of New Media (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), 77–78.
86 Dmitry Dragilev, “[Case Study] How We Ranked #1 for a High-Volume Keyword in Under 3 Months,” Moz, April 19, 2017, https://moz.com/blog/case-study-ranking-high-volume-keyword.
87 “56 Inspirational Motivational Quotes About Success and Life,” Brian Tracy International, accessed November 16, 2020, https://www.briantracy.com/blog/personal-success/26-motivational-quotes-for-success/. Note, the URL does not match the title of the page itself.
88 As estimated by the SEMRush software suite, July 15, 2019, https://www.semrush.com.
89 Lanham, Economics of Attention, xii.
90 See Michele Kennerly and Damien Smith Pfister, eds., Ancient Rhetorics and Digital Networks (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2018).
91 As quoted in Miller, “Web Words.”
92 Gerard A. Hauser and Erin Daina McClellan, “Vernacular Rhetoric and Social Movements: Performances of Resistance in the Rhetoric of the Everyday,” in Active Voices: Composing a Rhetoric for Social Movements, ed. Sharon McKenzie Stevens and Patricia M. Malesh (Albany: SUNY Press, 2010), 33.
93 Chris Foerster, “Is SEO Dead, Or Is It Evolving?” Forbes, April 9, 2018, https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescommunicationscouncil/2018/04/09/is-seo-dead-or-is-it-evolving/#1e973c3d2d7e.
94 Dave Greenbaum, “Put ‘Congratulations’ in Your Facebook Post So More People See It,” lifehacker, October 18, 2014, https://lifehacker.com/put-congratulations-in-your-facebook-post-so-more-peo-1641256756; Tovia Smith, “More States Opting to ‘Robo-Grade’ Student Essays By Computer,” NPR, June 30, 2018, https://www.npr.org/2018/06/30/624373367/more-states-opting-to-robo-grade-student-essays-by-computer.