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Notes
1. Jean Anouilh, The Lark, adapted by Lillian Hellman (New York: Random House, 1956), 20.
2. Jonathan Foreman, “Moore's the Pity: Fahrenheit's Fictions,” New York Post, June 23, 2004, http://www.lexis-nexis.com/.
3. Andrea Peyser, “A Sorry Apology at CBS,” New York Post, September 21, 2004, http://www.lexis-nexis.com/.
4. Martin L. Gross, “Why Bush Will Win,” The Washington Times, October 28, 2004, http://www.lexis-nexis.com/.
5. Augusta Chronicle, “‘Passion’ Misrepresents Jews,” March 6, 2004, http://www.lexis-nexis.com/.
6. Michael Tomasky, “Long Division: America is Not Split Over the Vietnam War, But Karl Rove Needs You to Believe That It Is,” The American Prospect, October, 2004, p. 18, http://www.lexis-nexis.com/.
7. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, “A Scurrilous Ad: Attack on Kerry's War Record Reaches a New Low,” August 13, 2004, sooner edition, http://www.lexis-nexis.com/.
8. St. Petersburg Times, “Bush's Propaganda Spiral,” January 27, 2005, South Pinellas edition, http://www.lexis-nexis.com/.
9. Denver Post, “Unethical Deal Ends Column, Credibility,” January 11, 2005, final edition, http://www.lexis-nexis.com/.
10. The Oregonian, “Tax-Paid Propaganda,” January 19, 2005, sunrise edition, http://www.lexis-nexis.com/.
11. Brian Orloff, “Senators to Introduce ‘Stop Government Propaganda Act,’” Editor and Publisher, January 27, 2005, http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id = 1000778976.
12. Brian Orloff, “Senators to Introduce ‘Stop Government Propaganda Act,’” Editor and Publisher, January 27, 2005, http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id = 1000778976.
13. Brian Orloff, “Senators to Introduce ‘Stop Government Propaganda Act,’” Editor and Publisher, January 27, 2005, http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id = 1000778976.
14. Hugh Rank, “Teaching About Public Persuasion: Rationale and a Schema,” in Teaching About Doublespeak, ed. Daniel Dieterich (Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1976), 5.
15. J. Fred MacDonald, “Propaganda and Order in Modern Society,” in Propaganda: A Pluralistic Perspective, ed. Ted J. Smith III (New York: Praeger, 1989), 24.
16. Nicholas F. S. Burnett, “Ideology and Propaganda: Toward an Integrative Approach,” in Smith, Pluralistic Perspective, 127.
17. Clayton D. Laurie, The Propaganda Warriors: America's Crusade Against Nazi Germany (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996), 6.
18. Stanley B. Cunningham, “Smoke and Mirrors: A Confirmation of Jacques Ellul's Theory of Information Use in Propaganda,” in Smith, Pluralistic Perspective, 151.
19. See Brandweek, “Chain Proudly Says It's ‘Toast,’” November 29, 2004, 16–17.
20. Kenneth Burke, The Philosophy of Literary Form: Studies in Symbolic Action, 3rd ed. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1973), 25.
21. Here I am borrowing somewhat from Carolyn R. Miller's argument that one can best understand rhetorical genres as “based in rhetorical practice and . . . organized around situated actions (that is, pragmatic, rather than syntactic or semantic).” See her “Genre as Social Action,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 70 (1984): 155.
22. Another kind of international propaganda would obviously be that aimed at foreign allies.
23. Some readers may care to know that Parry-Giles directed my dissertation in 2001, and so the ideas on propaganda in her book are in some respects consonant with my own.
24. Garth S. Jowett and Victoria O'Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion, 3rd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1999), 72–73.
25. Peter Guilday, “The Sacred Congregation De Propaganda Fide,” Catholic Historical Review 6 (1921): 480. See further discussion in Robert Jackall, “Introduction,” in Propaganda, ed. Robert Jackall (New York: New York University Press, 1995), 1–2.
26. Michel Foucault, The Use of Pleasure, Vol. 2: The History of Sexuality, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Vintage Books, 1990), 66.
27. Michel Foucault, The Use of Pleasure, Vol. 2: The History of Sexuality, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Vintage Books, 1990), 68.
28. Jowett and O'Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion, 73.
29. Edwin Black, “The Second Persona,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 56 (1970): 109–19.
30. Maurice Charland, “Constitutive Rhetoric: The Case of the Peuple Quebecois,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 73 (1987): 133–50.
31. See George Lakoff, “Metaphor and War: The Metaphor System Used to Justify War in the Gulf,” Peace Research 23 (1991): 25–32.
32. Christina S. Jarvis, The Male Body at War: American Masculinity During World War II (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois Press, 2003), 14.
33. Christina S. Jarvis, The Male Body at War: American Masculinity During World War II (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois Press, 2003), 40.
34. Christina S. Jarvis, The Male Body at War: American Masculinity During World War II (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois Press, 2003), 31.
35. Gerd Horten, Radio Goes to War: The Cultural Politics of Propaganda During World War II (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002), 47.
36. Randall L. Bytwerk, Bending Spines: The Propagandas of Nazi Germany and the German Democratic Republic (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2004), 18.
37. Randall L. Bytwerk, Bending Spines: The Propagandas of Nazi Germany and the German Democratic Republic (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2004), 22. While later GDR propaganda did not deify its leadership, it did present leaders in highly honored terms, and never revealed their mistakes. See Bytwerk, 28–29.
38. Jarvis, Male Body at War, 44.
39. Jarvis, Male Body at War, 48, ellipsis in original ad.
40. Jarvis, Male Body at War, 50.
41. Horten, Radio Goes to War, 53. Horten quotes the show's text from Ranald R. MacDougall, “Documentaries for Civilians: The Man Behind the Man Behind the Gun,” in Off Mike: Radio Writing by the Nation's Top Radio Writers, ed. Jerome Lawrence (New York: Essential Books, 1944), 155.
42. Bytwerk, Bending Spines, 40. See also Bytwerk, 24, for his description of Helmut Stellrecht's Faith and Action, a Nazi “book of virtues,” with “chapters on faith, loyalty, bravery, obedience, blood, life, and death.” As Bytwerk concludes, with this and other widespread Nazi publications, “a German who did not think too hard or look too deeply could comfortably believe that Nazism stood firmly on the side of familiar virtues.”
43. Horten, Radio Goes to War, 47. Horten quotes Norman Corwin, This is War! A Collection of Plays About America on the March (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1942), 8.
44. Shawn J. Parry-Giles, The Rhetorical Presidency, Propaganda, and the Cold War, 1945–1955 (New York: Praeger Publishers, 2001), 162. In his 1953 “Chance for Peace” address, Eisenhower contended that “the United States sought ‘true peace’ in the post-war years.” Meanwhile, overseas, Radio Free Europe not only re-broadcast the speech to much of Eastern Europe, it also sent messages constructing “U.S. peace as ‘total,’ ‘sincere,’ ‘complete,’ ‘true,’ ‘just,’ ‘honest,’ ‘lasting,’ ‘global,’ ‘real,’ and the peace of the ‘future.’” See Parry-Giles, 154–55.
45. For background on constitutive rhetoric, see James Jasinski, “A Constitutive Framework for Rhetorical Historiography: Toward an Understanding of the Discursive (Re)constitution of ‘Constitution’ in The Federalist Papers,” in Doing Rhetorical History: Concepts and Cases, ed. Kathleen J. Turner (Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1998), 72–92.
46. Philip Wander, “The Third Persona: An Ideological Turn in Rhetorical Theory,” Central States Speech Journal 35 (1984): 209.
47. Philip Wander, “The Third Persona: An Ideological Turn in Rhetorical Theory,” Central States Speech Journal 35 (1984): 209.
48. Jurgen Link, “Fanatics, Fundamentalists, Lunatics, and Drug Traffickers: The New Southern Enemy Image,” Cultural Critique 19 (Fall 1991): 33–53.
49. James J. Kimble, Mobilizing the Home Front: War Bonds, Morale, and the U.S. Treasury's Domestic Propaganda Campaign, 1942–1945 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, forthcoming), Chapter 3.
50. Parry-Giles, Rhetorical Presidency, 79.
51. Parry-Giles, Rhetorical Presidency, 79.
52. Parry-Giles, Rhetorical Presidency, 15. Parry-Giles is quoting from the Congressional Record, 1947, 6554.
53. Bytwerk, Bending Spines, 35.
54. Bytwerk, Bending Spines, 36.
55. Bytwerk, Bending Spines, 102. See also Bytwerk's description, on p. 83, of a 1986 issue of Neuer Weg called “State Terrorism—Why and How Is the USA Increasingly Practicing It?” “The article,” writes Bytwerk, “pointed out that the United States was out to dominate the world, that it was suppressing struggles for national liberation, and that it faced increasing opposition.”
56. Kimble, Mobilizing the Home Front, Chapter 3.
57. Bytwerk, Bending Spines, 26.
58. Horten, Radio Goes to War, 55. Horten quotes Neal Hopkins, “A Lesson in Japanese,” in The Treasury Star Parade (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1942), 358. This condescending image of the Japanese is a clear echo of a popular white criticism, generally following the Civil War, of African-Americans as imitative. See Kirt H. Wilson, “The Racial Politics of Imitation in the Nineteenth Century,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 89 (2003): 89–108.
59. Jarvis, Male Body at War, 128.
60. American constructions of the German enemy, of course, featured demonization and not (for the most part) dehumanization. For example, Horten reports that in early 1942 the first episode of the radio show This is War! suggested of Germany that “the enemy is Murder International, Murder Unlimited; quick murder on the spot or slow murder in the concentration camp, murder for listening to the short-wave radio … for speaking one's mind … The enemy is a liar also. A gigantic and deliberate and willful liar.” See Horten, Radio Goes to War, 45, where he quotes the radio show from Corwin, This is War!, 11–15.
61. James Jasinski, Sourcebook on Rhetoric: Key Concepts in Contemporary Rhetorical Studies (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2001), 412.
62. Bytwerk, Bending Spines, 45.
63. Bytwerk, Bending Spines, 51. Bytwerk quotes Kleines Politisches Worterbuch (Berlin: Dietz, 1967), 369.
64. Bytwerk, Bending Spines, 36.
65. Parry-Giles, Rhetorical Presidency, 15.
66. Parry-Giles, Rhetorical Presidency, 32. Parry-Giles quotes “Victory for the ‘Voice,’” New York Times, January 18, 1948, 10.
67. Bytwerk, Bending Spines, 150. Bytwerk quotes “Rucksicht am falschen Platz,” Das Schwarze Korps, September 2, 1943, 2.
68. Horten, Radio Goes to War, 56.
69. Horten, Radio Goes to War, 54.
70. Jarvis, Male Body at War, 38.
71. See, for example, Bonnie J. Dow and Mari Boor Tonn, “‘Feminine Style’ and Political Judgment in the Rhetoric of Ann Richards,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 79 (1993): 286–302.
72. Sonja K. Foss and Cindy L. Griffin, “Beyond Persuasion: A Proposal for an Invitational Rhetoric,” Communication Monographs 62 (1995): 13.
73. James J. Kimble, “Feminine Style and the Rehumanization of the Enemy: Peacemaking Discourse in Ladies Home Journal, 1945–1946.” Women and Language 27 (2004): 62–67.
74. See Foss and Griffin, “Beyond Persuasion”; see also Sally Miller Gearhart, “The Womanization of Rhetoric,” Women's Studies International Quarterly 2 (1979): 195–201.
75. See further discussion of the masculine style in Dow and Tonn, “Feminine Style,” 288.
76. Peter H. Odegard and E. Allen Helms, American Politics: A Study in Political Dynamics (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1938), 545.
77. Peter H. Odegard and E. Allen Helms, American Politics: A Study in Political Dynamics (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1938), 552, 553.
78. Peter H. Odegard and E. Allen Helms, American Politics: A Study in Political Dynamics (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1938), 545.
79. Jarvis, Male Body at War, 55.
80. Kimble, Mobilizing the Home Front, especially Chapter 2.
81. Parry-Giles, Rhetorical Presidency, 6, 49.
82. Parry-Giles, Rhetorical Presidency, 5, 19.
83. Bytwerk, Bending Spines, 117–28.
84. Horten, Radio Goes to War, 64.
85. Odegard and Helms, American Politics, 545.