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Original Articles

Towards a Reconciliation of the ‘Context-less’ with the ‘Space-less’? The Creative Class across Varieties of Capitalism: New Evidence from Sweden and the UK

, &
Pages 201-215 | Received 01 Nov 2010, Published online: 02 Apr 2012
 

Abstract

Clifton N., Cooke P. and Hansen H. K. Towards a reconciliation of the ‘context-less’ with the ‘space-less’? The creative class across varieties of capitalism: new evidence from Sweden and the UK, Regional Studies. The interplay between place, individuals and creativity has, in recent years, received much attention. National differences of how capitalism is organized can be drawn into this discussion, but they are seldom examined systematically. By investigating data from the UK as a liberal market economy and Sweden as a coordinated market economy, this paper develops and tests a set of hypotheses to analyse the role of ‘varieties of capitalism’ in relation to the location dynamics of the creative class. Results confirm the effect of the coordinated market economy in flattening the distribution of the creative class, tempered by the Swedish urban hierarchy which acts to concentrate it in a smaller number of (larger) locations. Through combining both contextual and spatial elements, this approach generates new insights into observed variations between the coordinated market economy and the liberal market economy around mobility, adjustment and quality of place, but it also serves to highlight where other additional factors may be influential.

Clifton N., Cooke P. and Hansen H. K. “无情境” 和 “无空间” 趋向融合?跨越资本主义多样性的创意阶层:来自瑞典和英国的新证据,区域研究。近年来,地方、个人和创造力三者之间的相互作用受到了广泛关注。资本主义组织方式的国家差异也被纳入这些讨论之中,但却鲜有系统性的研究。基于对自由市场经济国家英国以及调控式市场经济国家瑞典的调研数据,本文提出并验证了一系列的假说,以分析不同类型的资本主义体制与创意阶层区位动态性之间的关系。结果表明,调控式市场经济国家在促进创意阶层空间扁平化分布方面具有影响力,瑞典的城市层次就表现为把创意阶层集中在更少的几个(更大的)地点。通过情境要素和空间要素的组合,本文提出了如何看待调控式市场经济和自由式市场经济对空间流动性、适应性和地方质量产生影响的新观点,同时也强调了其他因素可能产生影响。

创意阶层 资本主义多样性 区位 流动性 地方质量

Clifton N., Cooke P. et Hansen H. K. Vers une conciliation de ce qui est ‘sans contexte’ avec ce qui est ‘sans espace’. La classe créative à travers des interprétations du capitalisme: de nouvelles preuves provenant de la Suède et du Royaume-Uni, Regional Studies. L'interaction entre l'endroit, les individus et la créativité a prêté beaucoup d'attention au cours des dernières années. Les spécificités nationales de l'organisation du capitalisme peuvent être mêlées à ce débat, mais on ne les examine guère de façon systématique. En examinant les données auprès du Royaume-Uni en tant qu'une économie de marché libérale et de la Suède en tant qu'une économie libérale coordonnée, cet article développe et teste un ensemble d'hypothèses afin d'analyser le rôle des ‘variétés de capitalisme’ par rapport à la dynamique de localisation de la classe créative. Les résultats confirment l'impact de l'économie de marché coordonnée quant à l'aplanissement de la distribution de la classe créative, modérée par l'hiérarchie urbaine suédoise qui sert à le concentrer dans des endroits (plus grands) moins nombreux. En alliant à la fois les aspects contextuels et spatiaux, cette façon fournit de nouveaux aperçus sur les variations observées de l'économie de marché coordonnée par rapport à l'économie de marché libérale quant à la mobilité, à l'ajustement et à la qualité de l'endroit, mais sert aussi à mettre l‘accent sur l'influence des facteurs supplémentaires.

Classe créative Interprétations du capitalisme Emplacement Mobilité Qualité de l'endroit

Clifton N., Cooke P. und Hansen H. K. Auf dem Weg zu einer Versöhnung des ‘Kontextlosen’ mit dem ‘Raumlosen’? Die kreative Klasse in den verschiedenen Varianten des Kapitalismus: neue Belege aus Schweden und Großbritannien, Regional Studies. In den letzten Jahren wurde den Wechselwirkungen zwischen Orten, Personen und Kreativität starke Beachtung geschenkt. Zu dieser Diskussion können auch nationale Unterschiede hinsichtlich der Organisation des Kapitalismus gehören, die aber selten auf systematische Weise untersucht werden. Anhand einer Untersuchung von Daten aus Großbritannien als liberaler Marktwirtschaft und aus Schweden als koordinierter Marktwirtschaft wird in diesem Beitrag eine Reihe von Hypothesen entwickelt und erprobt, um die Rolle der verschiedenen ‘Varianten des Kapitalismus’ für die Standortsdynamik der kreativen Klasse zu analysieren. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen die abflachende Wirkung der koordinierten Marktwirtschaft auf die Verteilung der kreativen Klasse, was durch die schwedische Stadthierarchie abgeschwächt wird, die eine Konzentration auf eine kleinere Anzahl (größerer) Standorte verursacht. Durch die Kombination von Kontext- und Raumelementen ermöglicht dieser Ansatz neue Einblicke in beobachtete Abweichungen zwischen der koordinierten und liberalen Marktwirtschaft in puncto Mobilität, Anpassung und Qualität von Orten, macht aber zugleich auch zusätzliche Faktoren deutlich, die eine Rolle spielen könnten.

Kreative Klasse Varianten des Kapitalismus Standort Mobilität Qualität von Orten

Clifton N., Cooke P. y Hansen H. K.¿Hacia una reconciliación de cosas ‘sin contexto’ con cosas ‘sin espacio’? La clase creativa en las diferentes variedades de capitalismo: nuevos datos de Suecia y el Reino Unido, Regional Studies. La interacción entre lugar, individuos y creatividad ha recibido mucha atención en los últimos años. En este debate también se pueden analizar las diferencias nacionales de cómo se organiza el capitalismo, pero raras veces se examinan de modo sistemático. Al investigar los datos del Reino Unido como una economía de mercado liberal y Suecia como una economía de mercado coordinado, en este artículo desarrollamos y probamos una serie de hipótesis para analizar el papel de las ‘variedades de capitalismo’ con relación a las dinámicas de ubicación de la clase creativa. Los resultados confirman el efecto de la economía de mercado coordinado al reducir la distribución de la clase creativa, atenuado por la jerarquía urbana sueca que actúa para concentrarla en un número más pequeño de ubicaciones (más grandes). Al combinar los elementos contextuales y espaciales, este enfoque genera nuevas perspectivas en las variaciones observadas entre la economía del mercado coordinado y la economía del mercado liberal en cuanto a la movilidad, el ajuste y la calidad del lugar, pero también sirve para destacar dónde podrían influir otros factores adicionales.

Clase creativa Variedades de capitalismo Ubicación Movilidad Calidad del lugar

JEL classifications:

Acknowledgements

The research from which this paper originates was in part funded by the UK Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) (Grant Number RES-000-23-0467) and the Swedish Research Council under a wider project entitled ‘Technology, Talent and Tolerance (TTT) in European Cities’ (Grant Number 2003-6432). The authors would also like to acknowledge the insightful comments made by three anonymous reviewers on an earlier version of this paper. The usual disclaimers apply.

Notes

The analytical section of this paper includes a cultural opportunity index (COI) and a Public Provision Index (PPI) as proxies for amenities.

The central common characteristic is a focus on complementary mechanisms of coordination, that is, the structure of collective action in general – for instance between individual companies, capital and labour – and to what extent different subsystems of coordination counteract or complement each other.

While Soskice Citation(1999) distinguishes between coordinated and uncoordinated market economies, Hall and Soskice Citation(2001) distinguish between coordinated and liberal market economies, thus accepting that market coordination (liberal systems) should not be equated with lack of coordination (uncoordinated economies). From a conceptual viewpoint the market is thus a coordination mechanism equal to others.

The approach is, of course, not immune from criticism – that it is somewhat manufacturing centric, for example.

Hall and Soskice Citation(2001) define the United States and the United Kingdom as two archetypal examples of the liberal market economy. Thus, in studying the creative class in Europe, the UK is self-selecting as the LME representative. With regard to archetypes of coordinated market economies Hall and Soskice highlight a number including Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Norway and Germany. Consequently, the selection of a CME is a little more complex; of the ‘Nordics’, Denmark has significant labour market flexibility (the ‘flexicurity’ system), while Norway and Finland are relatively small in terms of population, with the associated polarized urban hierarchy around the capital city. Moreover, Germany has a strong federal system of devolved internal governance, which potentially introduces a more complex relationship between the central state and regional outcomes and which by implication would make the comparison between LME and CME less reliable. Thus, for present purposes Sweden was deemed the most suitable representative nation-state for the CME.

For a detailed explanation of the indicators employed here, see Andersen et al. Citation(2010a) and Clifton Citation(2008).

Not in terms of absolute size – the US and Canadian regions typically being much larger; but rather having a similar role within the national context in question.

As an aside, there is other evidence beginning to emerge that creativity is actually spread more evenly in the UK than might be expected a priori – but that this creativity is not necessarily translated into readily observable local outcomes (Huggins and Clifton, Citation2011).

Calculating LQs and pooling the PPI data for Sweden and the UK also emphasizes the divergence between the two state models: all seventy Swedish regions generate an LQ > 1, whereas only thirty-three of the eighty-seven UK regions score above the overall average.

As noted by Florida et al. Citation(2008) population growth as an outcome measure is problematic when used in isolation. It is employed here to provide additional insight in combination with employment data.

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